●​ Format

○​ 40 Q - Nervous System
○​ 20 Q - Exam 1
○​ 20 Q - Exam 2
○​ 20 Q - Exam 3
●​ Exam 1
○​ Homeostasis: process of maintaining the body’s internal environment within a
normal range
■​ Takes places within tissue
■​ Ex.) ph level in blood, blood pressure, blood glucose
■​ Pathology: failure to maintain homeostasis
■​ Homeostasis Mechanisms
●​ Receptors: provide information about the stimulus
○​ Baro: detect pressure
○​ Chemo: detects chemical changes
○​ Touch: detects physical change
○​ Hormone: detects hormone levels
○​ Neuro: detects action potential
●​ Control Center: tells what a particular value should be
●​ Effectors: elicit responses that change conditions in the internal
environment
■​ Organization of the Body
●​ Chemical level: atoms combine to form molecules
●​ Cellular level: cells are made up of molecules
●​ Tissue level: tissues consist of similar types of cells
●​ Organ level: organs are made up of different types of tissues
●​ Organ system level: consist of different organs that work together
●​ Organism level: made up of multiple organ systems
■​ Characteristics of Life: organization, cells, metabolism,, reaction,
homeostasis, reproduction, development, evolution
■​ Feedback
●​ Dynamic equilibrium: the body’s natural state within a given range
●​ Positive: self -amplifying cycle in which a change leads to a
greater change away from homeostasis
○​ Birthing: causes greater harm with hormones
○​ Urination: causes toxins to leave body
●​ Negative: process that detects slight changes within the body and
signals to reverse the change
○​ Sweating: overheating so the body cools itself
○​ Bio Chem
■​ Atoms
●​ Nucleus can have protons and neutrons
●​ Electrons are tradable
●​ Isotope is atoms with more or less neutrons
■​ Electron Placement
●​ 1st Energy Shell: holds 2 electrons
●​ 2nd Energy Shell: holds 8 electrons
●​ 3rd Energy Shell: holds 8 electrons
●​ Valence Electrons: electrons on outer shell
○​ Where chemical bonding occurs
■​ Periodic Table
●​ Atomic Number: the number of protons
●​ Atomic Weight: when subtracted from atomic mass equals number
of neutrons
●​ Noble Gases: valence electrons are full
●​ Atoms in the Human Body: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
calcium, phosphorus
■​ Ions: atoms with one less or one more electron
●​ Cations: atom with a positive charge
●​ Anions: atom with negative charge
●​ Reactions:
○​ Synthesis: atoms merge together
○​ Decomposition: atoms split apart
○​ Single Replacement: one switch of atoms
○​ Double Replacement: two switch of atoms
■​ Types of Bonds
●​ Ionic:attraction between cations and anions
○​ Transfer of electrons to become neutral
●​ Covalent: formed when atoms share electrons
○​ Atoms with specific number of bonds:
■​ Hydrogen: 1 bond
■​ Oxygen: 2 bonds
■​ Nitrogen: 3 bonds
■​ Carbon: 4 bonds
○​ Polar: molecule with a slightly negative end and a slightly
positive end
■​ Results when electrons are not shared equally in
covalent bond
■​ ex.) water
○​ Non-Polar: molecule that has equally sharing of electrons
●​ Hydrogen: a weak attraction between a positive end and a
negative end of two different polar molecules
○​ Important for protein and nucleic acid structure
○​ Ex.) between water molecules
■​ Electrolytes: salts that ionize in water and form solutions capable of
conducting an electric current
●​ Usage:
○​ Chemical reactivity
 ○​ Osmotic effects
○​ Electrical effects on nerve and muscle tissue
●​ Balance is one of the most important considerations in patient
care
○​ Imbalance causes muscle cramps, brittle bones, coma,
cardiac arrest
■​ Acids and Bases
●​ Acids: proton donor
○​ Releases H+ ions in water
■​ Creates hydronium
●​ Bases: proton acceptor
○​ Releases OH- ions in water
○​ Accept H+ ions
●​ pH: a measure derived from the molarity of H+ on a log scale
○​ Scale
■​ Neutral: 7
●​ Water
■​ Acidic: less than 7
■​ Alkaline: more than 7
■​ Invented by Soren Sorenson in 1909 to measure
acidity of beer
■​ Change in one number on the scale represents 10x
change in H+ concentration
○​ Buffers: substances that can resist the changes of acids
and bases
■​ Releases hydrogen ions when too alkaline
■​ Absorbs hydrogen ions when too acidic
■​ Ex.) pH of Blood: 7.35-7.45
●​ Deviations from range causes tremors,
paralysis, death
○​ Acidosis: to acidic
○​ Alkalosis: to basic
■​ BioMolecules: dictate biology
●​ Functional Groups: determine molecular behavior through
reactivity
○​ Held together by covalent bonds
○​ Hydroxyl: ethanol; all biomolecules

○​ Carbonyl: Acetaldehyde; carbohydrates, nucleic acid

○​ Carboxyl: acetic acid; proteins, lipids

 ○​ Amino: alarine; proteins, nucleic acids

○​ Phosphate: glycerol phosphate; nucleic acids

●​ Carbohydrates: means “carbon in water”

○​ Always 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen
○​ Basic formula: CH2O
■​ ex.) Glucose: C6H12O6
○​ Types
■​ Monosaccharides: simplest level of molecular
organization
●​ Simple sugar
●​ 5 carbon sugar: ribose and deoxyribose
○​ Found in DNA and RNA
●​ 6 carbon sugar: glucose, fructose, galactose
■​ Disaccharides: joining of 2 monosaccharides
●​ ex.) maltose, lactose, sucrose
●​ Dehydration Synthesis: process by joining
two monomers together through the
removal of water
○​ A hydrogen atom from one and a
hydroxyl group from another is
released
○​ Glycosidic bond is formed when a
hydrogen atom and hydroxyl group
from 2 hydroxyl functional groups
■​ Polysaccharides: if dehydration synthesis continues
to link multiple saccharides
●​ ex.) glycogen
○​ Store glucose in all body tissue
●​ Hydrolysis: adding water into the molecule
to break the glycosidic bond
●​ Nucleic Acids
○​ Nucleotides: series of monomers that make up nucleic
acids
■​ Structure
●​ Phosphate group: attaches nucleotides
together through dehydration synthesis
●​ Sugar: ribose and deoxyribose
●​ Nitrogenous Bases
 ○​ Pyrimidines: Thymine, Uracil,
Cytosine
■​ Single rung
○​ Purines: Guanine, Adenine
■​ Double rung
■​ Phosphodiester Linkage: between C5 and C3 of
two nucleotides vertically through a phosphate
group
●​ Ester bond: bond between an oxygen and
carbon
○​ Nucleotides
■​ Ribonucleotides: nucleotides that use ribose
■​ Deoxyribonucleotides: nucleotides that use
deoxyribose
○​ RNA
■​ Sugar: ribose
■​ Uracil is used instead of thymine
■​ Less stable than DNA
●​ Presence of OH- group
●​ Increased reactivity
○​ DNA
■​ Sugar: deoxyribose
■​ Shape: double helix
■​ Stable in water
○​ ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate
■​ Body’s most important energy-transfer molecule
■​ Briefly stores energy gained from exergonic
reactions
■​ Releases it within seconds for physiological work
■​ Holds energy in covalent bonds
●​ 2nd and 3rd phosphate group have high
energy bonds
●​ Most energy transfers to and from ATP
involve adding or removing the 3rd
phosphate
■​ Energy: ATP and ADP
●​ Released during hydrolysis which leaves
ADP + P
●​ Phosphorylation: process to add a
phosphate group
○​ Photophosphorylation: uses sunlight
○​ Substrate level phosphorylation:
uses enzymes
 ○​ Oxidative phosphorylation: uses
hydrogen ion concentrations
●​ Proteins
○​ Amino Acids: building block of proteins (monomer)
■​ 20 different types
■​ Common STructure: designed around a central
carbon
■​ Structure: ​
●​ Amino group
●​ Carboxyl group
●​ Hydrogen atom
●​ Side chain: defines how many amino acids
react
○​ Allows for uniqueness among AMino
Acids
○​ Alters reactivity and solubility
■​ Hydrophilic: mixes with water
■​ Hydrophobic: does not mix
with water
■​ Essential 9: Amino acids required for the body that
can only be obtained through diet
●​ Glycine, aldine, valine, leucine, isoleucine,
methionine, phenylalanine, tryptophan,
proline
●​ Non-polar
●​ Insoluble
■​ Polymerization: process of linking monomers
together
●​ Done through dehydration synthesis
■​ Macromolecule: a complex and large molecule form
from monomers joined through dehydration
synthesis
●​ Proteins: 50 or more amino acids linked
○​ Polypeptide
■​ Peptide Bond: linkage formed between a carbon of
one amino acid and the nitrogen of a second amino
acid
●​ Occurs at the site of the carboxyl group and
the amino group
●​ Created through dehydration synthesis
○​ Functions:
■​ Enzymes: proteins that supply energy to a reaction
●​ Chemicals that reduce the energy needed
to conduct metabolic reactions
 ●​ Functions by lowering the needed Activation
Energy
○​ Resistance to a reaction, prevent
reaction
○​ High Activation Energy: slow
reaction speeds
●​ Work off a specific active site and induced fit
●​ Why use Enzymes:
○​ Not enough reactants
○​ Using energy creates heat and too
much heat throws body out of
homeostasis
●​ Metabolic Pathway: a chain of reaction
where each step is catalysed by a different
enzyme
○​ Change an enzyme and alter the
pathway
○​ Cofactor binding/dissociation
○​ Negative Feedback Inhibition: when
too much product is produced there
is a block put in place
●​ Stopping an Enzyme
○​ Labile: a change in environment
making the enzyme unstable or
inactive
■​ Denaturing: unravel back to
primary structure
■​ Causes: temperature, pH

■​ Muscle movement
■​ Oxygen transport
■​ Structure to cells, tissue, and bone
■​ Aides in defense mechanisms with immune system
○​ Structure
■​ Primary Structure: a linear sequence of amino
acids
●​ Protein’s sequence amino acid which is
encoded in the genes
■​ Secondary Structure: coiled or folded shape held
together by hydrogen bonds
●​ Hydrogen bonds between slightly negative
C=O and slightly positive N-H groups
●​ Most common structure
○​ Alpha helix: springlike shape
 ○​ Beta Helix: pleated ribbonlike shape
■​ Tertiary Structure: further bending and folding of
proteins into globular and fibrous shapes
●​ Globular proteins: compact tertiary structure
well suited for proteins that must move
about freely in body fluid
○​ Not active
○​ Made of alpha helixes
●​ Fibrous proteins: slender filaments better
suited for roles as in muscle contraction and
strengthening the skin
○​ Active
○​ Made of beta helixes
■​ Quaternary Structure: associations of two or more
separate polypeptide chains
●​ Functional conformation: 3D shape
●​ Active
●​ ex.) hemoglobin
●​ Lipids: made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
○​ Non-polar
○​ Hydrophobic
○​ Monomer: Fatty acids
■​ Hydrocarbon chain
■​ Carboxyl group
○​ Structure: 3 fatty acids and glycerol group
■​ Linked by an ester linkage
●​ Created by dehydration synthesis
○​ Types
■​ Steroids: composed of a hydrocarbon chain and 4
ring structure
●​ Each differs in the functional group attached
to the 4-ring structure
●​ Cholesterol is a main precursor
●​ ex.) testosterone
■​ Phospholipids: composed of a glycerol group,
phosphate, and 2 fatty acids
●​ Phosphate contains choline
○​ Polar group
●​ Cell membrane
■​ Triglycerides: 3 fatty acids attached to a glycerol
○​ Cell Bio
■​ Cell Membrane: plasmalemma
●​ Characteristics
○​ Selectively Permeable: allows certain materials to move
across the cellular membrane
■​ Inverse function: as selectivity increased
permeability decreases
■​ Made of phospholipid bilayer: diglycerol and
phosphate group
●​ 2 layers
○​ Choline and phosphate group
■​ Hydrophilic
■​ Polar
○​ Glycerol and fatty acid
■​ Hydrophobic
■​ Nonpolar
■​ Passive Transport: Does not use ATP
●​ Diffusion: the movement of molecules from
an area of higher concentration to an area
of lower concentration until equilibrium is
reached
○​ Concentration Gradient: how
movement occurs in diffusion
○​ Osmosis: movement of water from
an area of lower solute
concentration to an area of higher
solute concentration across a
semipermeable membrane until
equilibrium of molecules are reached
■​ Tonicity: direction that water
moves in response to solute
concentration
■​ Hypertonic: water must move
out of the cell
■​ Hypotonic: water must move
inside the cell
■​ Isotonic: water moves in and
out at equal rates
○​ Facilitated Diffusion: the movement
of molecules from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
○​ concentration with a carrier protein
 ■​ Active Transport: uses ATP
●​ Endocytosis: brings molecules inside the
cell
○​ Phagocytosis
○​ Pinocytosis
●​ Exocytosis: remove molecules from the cell
○​ Flexibility: would rupture if rigid
○​ Separates the cytoplasm of the internal environment from
the cell’s external environment
●​ Structures:
○​ Integral proteins: extends through both layers of the
membrane
■​ Move ions through from one side to another
■​ Amphiphilic
○​ Peripheral proteins: may occur on either the external or
internal side of the membrane but do not go through
■​ Enzyme based
■​ Served as a place for carbohydrates to bind
●​ Forms glycoproteins and glycolipids for
intercellular communication
■​ DNA: nucleic acid
●​ Structure
○​ Sugar backbone, phosphate group, nitrogenous base
■​ Nitrogenous Bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine,
thymine, uracil
●​ Law of Complementary Base-Pairs:
○​ Adenine - Thymine
○​ Guanine - Cytosine
○​ Chromatin:located during interphase, “ball” of genetic
material
○​ Chromatids: located during prophase, anaphase, early
telophase; genetic material condenses
○​ Chromosomes: located during metaphase; sister
chromatids to join together
■​ Kinetochore: protein that allows sister chromatids to
join together at the centromere
●​ Replication
○​ Occurs during s-phase of interphase
○​ Involves 3 enzymes:
■​ DNA Helicase: break hydrogen bonds
■​ DNA Polymerase: matches new nitrogen bases and
checks itself
■​ DNA Ligase: re-establishes hydrogen bonds
■​ Central Dogma: DNA -> RNA -> Proteins
●​ Cannot occur in reverse
●​ Genes: specific regions found on DNA
○​ Code for a diverse group of proteins
○​ Allele: variation of genes
■​ Ex.) widow’s peak, hikers thumb, eye color
■​ RNA: Ribonucleic acid
●​ mRNA: mirror image of segment DNA
○​ messenger
●​ rRNA: reads the mRNA
○​ Ribosomal
●​ tRNA: brings the amino acids to the rRNA for protein production
○​ Thymine gets replaced by uracil
○​ Transport
■​ Protein Synthesis
●​ Transcription: process of copying DNA to RNA
●​ Translation: process of using RNA to synthesize proteins
○​ rRNA: ribosomes have 2 portions/subunits
○​ Codons: 3-base sequence of mRNA
■​ Construct mRNA
○​ Anticodons: 3 nucleotides attached to the tRNA which
code for an amino acid
●​ After
○​ Newly formed protein is released
○​ Packed in the transport vesicle
○​ Delivered to the Golgi Complex: finalizes protein and
releases it into a secretory vesicle
■​ Released to the membrane and protein is free
■​ Cellular Respiration
●​ Glycolysis: electrons from glucose to oxygen
○​ Uses enzymes to convert glucose to pyruvic acid
■​ Pyruvic acid: 3-carbon molecule used in Krebs
Cycle to create more energy
●​ Making Acetyl CoA from Pyruvic Acid
○​ Pyruvic acid moved from cytoplasm
into the mitochondria
○​ Pyruvic acid and Coenzyme A
interacts making Acetyl CoA
○​ Acetyl CoA is carried into the next
phase of ATP production
○​ To create ATP substrate level phosphorylation has
occurred
○​ High levels of ATP inhibits Phosphofructokinase​
■​ Feedback inhibition
 ○​ Happens in the cytoplasm
○​ Phases
■​ Investment
●​ Adds phosphate group to hexokinase
○​ Through substrate level
phosphorylation
■​ Payoff
●​ ATP created
●​ Pyruvic acid created
●​ Krebs Cycle
○​ Happens in mitochondrial matrix
○​ Pyruvic acid is reduced to an acetyl
■​ Creates 1 molecule of NADH and CO2
○​ Joins with oxaloacetic acid to form citric acid
○​ Citric acid undergoes a series of reductions ending where
it started
○​ Each glucose generates 2 cycles
○​ Creates 6 CO2, 8 NADH, 2 FADH, 2 ATP
●​ Electron Transport Chain
○​ Used in the oxidation of NADH and FADH
○​ Oxidative Phosphorylation: the production of ATP using
phosphorylation of ADP and the oxidation of NADH and
FADH2
○​ Chemiosmosis: Production of ATP using proton gradient
○​ 38 ATP created
○​ Anaerobic Respiration: the final electron acceptor in the
electron transport chain is an inorganic molecule other
than O2
■​ Yields fewer ATP than aerobic respiration because
only a part of krebs cycle is used
■​ Operates under anaerobic conditions
■​ Fermentation: series of redox reactions which release energy from
oxidation of organic molecules
●​ Does not require oxygen
●​ Does not use krebs cycle or ETC
●​ Uses an organic molecule as the final electron acceptor
●​ Yields very few ATP
■​ Organelles
●​ Centrioles: barrel-shaped oriented at right angles to each other
○​ Only in animal cells
○​ Function: cell division
■​ Have 9 groups of 3 arrangements of protein fibers
●​ Lysosomes: “suicide sacks”
○​ Produce by golgi body
 ○​ Consists of a single membrane surrounding powerful
digestive enzymes
■​ Lumpy brown structure
■​ Protect destroying bacteria white blood cells engulf
○​ Function: cleans cell of wastes
●​ Mitochondria: “powerhouse” of the cell
○​ Site of cellular respiration
○​ Double membrane
■​ Inner membrane
●​ Location of aerobic respiration
●​ Ruffle with large surface area
○​ Have their own DNA
○​ Manufactures some of their own proteins
●​ Endoplasmic Reticulum: series of double membranes that loop
back and forth between cell membrane and nucleus
○​ Smooth: pathway throughout cytoplasm
■​ From cell membrane to nuclear membrane
■​ Produce lipids
○​ Rough: has ribosomes which manufactures proteins
●​ Cell Membrane: regulates what enters and exits the cell
○​ Allows self recognition
●​ Nucleus: “headquarters” of the cell
○​ Large dark spot in eukaryotic cell
○​ Chromatin: thick ropy strands
○​ Nucleolus: condensed chromatin that manufactures
ribosomes
●​ Golgi Body: packages proteins
○​ Proteins enters through sac like cisternae
■​ Cell Division
●​ Interphase: period of cell formation to cell division
○​ Cell is carrying out all its routine activities
○​ Subphases:
■​ G1: cell is metabolically active synthesizing
proteins rapidly and growing vigorously
●​ Longest phase
●​ Centrioles start to replicate in preparation of
cell division
■​ S: DNA is replicated ensuring that the two future
cells being created will receive identical copies of
the genetic material
●​ Chromatin established
■​ G2: enzymes and other proteins needed for division
are synthesized and moved to their proper site
●​ Final stage
 ●​ Centriole replication completes
●​ Checkpoint where all DNA is replicated and
damaged
●​ DNA is repaired
●​ Mitosis: the division of the nucleus
○​ Prophase
■​ Early Prophase:
●​ Chromatin becomes chromosomes
○​ Chromosomes consists of two sister
chromatids connected at the
centromere
●​ Nuclei disappear and two centrosomes
separate
●​ Asters extend from centrosome matrix
■​ Late Prophase
●​ Nuclear envelope breaks
○​ Allows spindle fibers to interact with
chromosomes
○​ Metaphase
■​ Two centrosomes are at opposite poles of the cell
■​ Chromosomes cluster at the midline
●​ Centromeres precisely aligned at the
spindle equator
■​ Enzymes act to separate the chromatids from each
other are triggered
○​ Anaphase
■​ Shortest phase
■​ Begins when centromeres of centrosomes split
●​ Chromatid becomes chromosomes
■​ Threads of chromatin diffuse
■​ Start of cytokinesis: division of cytoplasm
○​ Telophase: begins when chromosomal movement stops
■​ Nuclear envelope begins to form
■​ Chromosomes revert to chromatin
■​ Cytokinesis ends
●​ Exam 2
○​ Muscular Tissue
■​ function: contracts to cause movement
■​ Types:
●​ Skeletal:
○​ Cells arranged as long fibers
○​ multinucleated
○​ high amounts of mitochondria
○​ voluntary
○​ striated
 ●​ Smooth
○​ cells are myocytes
○​ unicellular
○​ uninucleated
○​ cell shape is fusiform
○​ involuntary
○​ located in hollow organs
○​ non-striated
●​ Cardiac
○​ cells are cardiocytes
○​ involuntary
○​ striated
○​ branched
○​ specialized connections: intercalated discs
○​ Nervous
■​ cell type: neurons
■​ communication is the main function
○​ Cellular linkage
■​ tight junctions
●​ limits permeability of the cell - prevent things from entering the cell
●​ forms continuous seals around the cell
●​ in connective and epithelial
●​ leaky junction: junctions that become more permeable
■​ Desmosome
●​ mainly found in cardiac muscle
●​ anchoring junctions: goes through both cell membranes
●​ binds adjacent cells together - molecular velcro
●​ keeps cells from tearing apart
●​ fascia adherens: link cells together
■​ Gap Junctions
●​ communicating junctions
●​ allows ions and small molecules to pass from cell to cell
●​ important in heart and embryonic cells
○​ Tissue Repair
■​ regeneration: replacement of dead or damaged cells
■​ fibrosis: process of replacing damage tissue
●​ creates collagen fibers to fill in for tissue
●​ scar tissue: collagen fibers that have become dense
■​ Mast cells: releases chemical stimulus in epithelial cells
●​ ex.) histamine, heparin
●​ related to basophil
○​ Bones
■​ Function: support and movement, muscle attachment
●​ calcium storage for the muscle and nervous systems
●​ acid base balance - buffers blood by releasing carbonate as
carbonic acid
●​ adipocytes in yellow bone marrow
●​ hematopoiesis in red bone marrow of flat bones - process of
making red blood cells
■​ Amorphous Ground Substance and the fibers
 ●​ ground substance: mineralized and hardened due to high levels of
mineral salts
○​ calcium phosphate (hydroxyapatite), calcium carbonate
○​ other minerals: magnesium, hydroxide, fluoride, sulfate
●​ Fiber type: collagen - the rebar for bones
■​ The cells of skeletal system
●​ osteoprogenitor cells: stem cell - changes based on hormones
●​ osteoblast cells: matrix-synthesizing cell responsible for bone
growth - new hardening ground substance layed down
●​ osteocyte: mature bone cell that monitors and maintains the
mineralized bone matrix - differentiated osteoblasts
●​ osteoclast: bone-resorbing cell - not a bone cell
○​ Bone Remodeling
■​ see model sheet
○​ Structure of bone
■​ types
●​ dense: long bones, yellow bone marrow
●​ spongy: flat bones, end of long bones, red bone marrow
○​ made of interconnecting plates
○​ trabeculae are surrounded
○​ Parts of bone
■​ long bones:
●​ diaphysis: shaft
●​ epiphysis: ends of the long bone
●​ metaphysis: where the diaphysis and epiphysis meets
●​ medullary: bone marrow\
●​ covering of the bone: connective tissue
○​ top layer: periosteum
■​ deep layer is osteoprogenitor cells
■​ superficial layer is dense connective tissue for
attachment of ligaments and tendons
○​ deep layer: endosteum
■​ has osteoprogenitor cells
■​ no dense connective tissue
■​ irregular bones: vertebrae
■​ Short bone: phalanges, carpals
■​ flat bones:
●​ contain red bone marrow
●​ spongy bone bone makes up the core of the bone
●​ compact bone is the external and internal plates
○​ Bone forming
■​ osteogenesis - process of forming bone
■​ embryo bone: hyaline cartilage
■​ endochondral ossification: cartilage is replaced by bone - occurs before
birth about 6 weeks
●​ starts with diaphysis and ends with the epiphysis after birth
●​ long bones
■​ intramembranous ossification: turns connective tissue into spongy bone
and external and internal plates of flat bones
■​ Long one growth
●​ occurs at the epiphyseal plate
 ●​ 4 layers of cartilage
○​ zone of reserve cartilage
■​ nearest to epiphysis
■​ composed of hyaline cartilage
■​ anchors epiphysis to epiphyseal plate
○​ zone of hyperplastic cartilage
■​ chondrocytes are diving at an increased rapid rate
○​ zone of hypertrophic cartilage
■​ rapid growth due to increased cell size
■​ each cell is adding extracellular matrix
○​ zone of calcified matrix
■​ chondrocytes die - apoptosis
■​ calcium salts are released that leads to the
hardening of the matrix
■​ osteoclasts begin to reabsorb the hardened matrix
■​ triggers osteoblast to begin to replace the matrix
with new bone
■​ lengthwise growth
●​ involves nutrients and hormones
○​ human growth hormone - released from the pituitary
○​ thyroid hormone - increases growth rate
○​ sex hormones - increases growth rate
■​ bone breakage - fractures
●​ hematoma forms - blood clot to immobilize break
●​ fibrocartilage callus forms - broken down into spongy bone
●​ bony callus forms - broken down into compact bone
●​ bone remodeling occurs
●​ Exam 3
○​ Naming Muscles
■​ direction of fibers
■​ size of muscle
■​ location
■​ number of origins
■​ location of origin and insertions
■​ shape
■​ action
○​ Anatomy of Muscle
■​ cells: myofibers
■​ membrane of cell: sarcolemma
■​ cytoplasm: sarcoplasm
■​ endoplasmic reticulum: sarcoplasmic reticulum
●​ stores calcium instead of produce proteins
○​ Physiology of Muscle
■​ myofibrils: where contraction occurs
●​ makes up the myofiber
●​ Sarcomeres: functional unit made up of myofilaments
○​ thick - made of protein myosin
■​ blade: myosin sidearm
●​ function: bind to actin and to act as APase
○​ thin
■​ made of 3 proteins
 ●​ tropomyosin: long string-like protein that
blocks the myosin binding site on actin
●​ actin: binds to the myosin sidearm
●​ troponin: binds to calcium
○​ when bond tropomyosin twist to
allow actin to bind
○​ Muscle Stripes
■​ Myofibril regions​
●​ A band
○​ both thick and thin myofilaments
●​ I band
○​ only thin myofilaments
●​ H zone
○​ only thick myofilaments
○​ All-or-None Law
■​ there either is an action potential or there is not - no in between
■​ action potential is achieved when -55mV is reached
●​ varies due to:
○​ quickness of stimulation signal
○​ amount of Ca++ present
○​ how stretched the sarcomeres are
○​ temperature of the muscle
○​ hydration and pH levels
○​ recruitment: the process of exciting more motor nerves to produce more
contraction
○​ treppe: increase in tension with repeated stimulation
○​ Tetinis
■​ incomplete: sarcomere contraction and relaxation - 20-40 AP/sec
■​ complete: sarcomere contraction constantly - >40 AP/sec
●​ how the STEM machines work
○​ myokinesis: protein that regulates a transfer of a phosphate group from one ADP
to another
○​ Creatine Kinase: obtains phosphate from creatine phosphate molecule and
attaches it to ADP, creating ATP
○​ Direct Phosphorylation: coupled reaction of creatine phosphate and ADP
■​ energy source - Creatine Phosphate
■​ O2 use - none
■​ products - 1 ATP/Creatine Phosphate, creatine
■​ Duration of energy - 15 sec
○​ Anaerobic Pathway: glycolysis and lactic acid formation
■​ energy source - glucose
■​ O2 use - none
■​ products - 2 ATP/Glucose, lactic acid
■​ Duration of energy - 30-40 seconds
○​ Aerobic Pathway: aerobic cellular respiration
■​ energy source - glucose, pyruvic acid, free fatty acids from adipose
tissue, amino acids from protein catabolism
■​ O2 use - required
■​ products - 32 ATP/Glucose, CO2, H2O
■​ Duration of energy - hours
 ○​ Types of Skeletal Muscular Fibers
■​ Slow Oxidative
●​ uses ATP more slowly when bound to myosin
●​ resistant to fatigue
■​ Fast oxidative-glycolytic
●​ uses ATP through cellular respiration
●​ does both anaerobic and aerobic respiration
●​ high resistance to fatigue
■​ fast glycolytic
●​ quick breakdown of glucose during glycolysis
●​ quickly fatigue
○​ Action Potential
■​ both Na+ and K+ are inside the cell
●​ ratio - 3Na+:2K+
○​ positive terminal: outside of the cell with Na+
○​ negative terminal: inside of the cell with K+
■​ membrane polarization: process of creating an unequal distribution of
electrical charges across the cellular membrane (-70mV)
■​ depolarization: move Na+ into the cell causing the outside and inside of
the cell to be positive and equal in charge
●​ result of an action potential
●​ Nervous System
○​ Brain Anatomy
■​ Cerebrum
●​ Gray Matter: Short unmyelinated neurons and cell bodies
○​ Locations: outside layer of the brain, inside layer of the
spine
●​ White Matter: myelinated and unmyelinated axons
○​ Locations: inside layer of the brain, outside layer of the
spine
■​ Cerebral Hemisphere: form superior part of the bain
●​ 83% of the brain
●​ Surface Markings:
○​ Gyri: ridges
○​ Sulci:shallow grooves
○​ Fissure: deep grooves
■​ Longitudinal fissure: separates two hemispheres
■​ Transverse fissure: separates cerebrum and
cerebellum
●​ Functions
○​ Motor Area: located in the frontal lobe, act to control
voluntary movement
■​ Primary Motor Cortex: voluntary skeletal movement
■​ Premotor Cortex: Subconscious learned motor
functions
■​ Frontal Eye Field: voluntary eye movement
■​ Broca’s Area: motor speech
 ○​ Sensory Area: areas of cortex concerned with conscious
awareness of sensation
○​ Multimodal Association areas:
■​ Anterior association area: reasoning, recall,
persistence, memory, personality, judgement
■​ Posterior Association Area: understand written and
spoken words, recognizes patterns
■​ Limbic Association Area: emotion and memory
●​ White Matter
○​ Association Fibers: horizontal running fibers that connect
different parts of the same hemisphere
■​ Communication network
○​ Commissural Fibers: horizontal fibers that connect gray
matter of two hemispheres
■​ Inside the corpus callosum
○​ Projection Fibers: vertical fibers that connect hemispheres
with lower brain or spinal cord
■​ Communicates from brain to spinal cord
■​ Internal Capsule: projection fibers on each side of
the brain stem form compact band
■​ Corona Radiata: projection fibers that radiate
through cerebral white matter to the cortex
■​ Diencephalon
●​ Thalamus: 80% of diencephalon
○​ Sorts, edits and relays ascending input such as:
■​ Impulses from hypothalamus: regulates emotion
and visceral function
■​ Impulses from cerebellum and basal nuclei: help
direct motor cortices
■​ Impulses from memory and sensory integration:
links memory to senses
●​ Hypothalamus
○​ Contains mammillary bodies
■​ Paired anterior nuclei that acts as olfactory relay
stations
○​ Infundibulum: stalk that connects to pituitary gland
○​ Main visceral control and regulating center that is vital to
homeostasis
■​ Chief homeostasis controls:
●​ Controls autonomic nervous system
●​ Initiates physical responses to emotions
○​ Part of the limbic system: perceives
pleasure, rage, biological rhythms,
and drives
 ■​ Body temperature: shivering and sweating
■​ Hunger and satiety
■​ Water balance and thirst
■​ Sleep-wake cycle
■​ Controls endocrine system functions
●​ Secretions of anterior pituitary gland
●​ Production of posterior pituitary hormones
●​ Epithalamus
○​ Contains pineal gland
■​ Extends from the posterior border
■​ Secretes melatonin that helps regulate sleep-wake
cycle
●​ As the sun sets the gland secretes more
melatonin
■​ Midbrain
●​ Regulates and controls protective mechanisms within the body in
response to an external stimulus
○​ Eye movement
○​ Head and neck
●​ Plays role in pain suppression and fight-or-flight response
○​ Controls cranial nerves: oculomotor and trochlear
○​ Corpora Quadrigemina
■​ Superior Colliculus: Visual relay
■​ Inferior Colliculus: Auditory relay
■​ Pons
●​ Origin of cranial nerves: trigeminal, abducens, facial
●​ Aids in respiration with the medulla
●​ Composed of conduction tracts:
○​ Longitudinal fibers connect higher brain centers and spinal
cord
○​ Transversal/dorsal fibers relay impulses between motor
cortex and cerebellum
■​ Medulla Oblongata
●​ Functional groups of medulla:
○​ Cardiovascular center: vital reflex
■​ Cardiac center: adjunct force and rate of heart
condition
■​ Vasomotor center: adjust blood vessel diameter for
blood pressure regulation
○​ Respiratory Center:
■​ Generate respiratory rhythm
■​ Control rate and depth of breathing
○​ Other centers: vomiting, hiccuping, swallowing, coughing,
sneezing
■​ Cerebellum
●​ Posterior to the brainstem
●​ Gray matter: has follia
●​ White matter: called arbor vitae
●​ Functions:
○​ Controls skeletal muscle movement
○​ Oversees the location, speed and direction of the limbs
during movement
■​ Meninges
●​ Function:
○​ Cover and protect cranial nervous system
○​ Protect blood vessels and enclose venous sinuses
○​ Contain CSF
○​ Forms partitions in the skull
●​ Layers:
○​ Dura Mater: Outermost and toughest layer; white and
leathery
■​ 3 main speta: anchors brain to cranial cavity
●​ Falx Cerebri: in longitudinal fissure
●​ Falx Cerebelli: along vermis of cerebellum
●​ Tentorium Cerebelli: horizontal dural fold
over cerebellum and in transverse fissure
○​ Arachnoid Mater: middle layer
■​ Contains spider-like projections
■​ Separated from dura mater by subdural space
■​ Subarachnoid Space: contains CSF and largest
blood vessels of the brain
■​ Arachnoid Granulations: protrude through dura
mater into superior sagittal sinus
●​ Permit reabsorption of the CSF back into
venous blood
■​ Cerebrospinal Fluid: causes inflammation in meninges
●​ Forms a liquid cushion of constant volume around the brain
●​ Functions:
○​ Gives buoyancy to CNS structure
■​ Reduces weight of the brain by 97% by floating it
so its weight is not crushed by its own weight
○​ Protects CNS from blows and other trauma
○​ Nourishes brain and carries chemical signals
●​ Composed of watery solution formed from blood plasma, but with
less protein and different ion concentrations from plasma
■​ Choroid Plexus: cluster of capillaries that hangs from roof of each
ventricle, enclosed by pia mater and surrounding layer of ependymal cells
●​ CSF is filtered from the plexus at constant rate
 ●​ Ependymal cells use ion pumps to control composition of CSF and
help cleanse CSF by removing waste
●​ Cilia of ependymal cells help to keep CSF in motion
■​ Blood Brain Barrier
●​ Helps maintain stable environment for brain
○​ Chemical variations could lead to uncomfortable neuron
firings
○​ Astrocytes are attached to these cells and influence the
differences
○​ High permeability
●​ Substances move through epithelial cells:
○​ Simple diffusion: allows lipid-soluble substances, as well
as blood gases to pass freely through cell membrane
○​ Specific Transport mechanisms: facilitated diffusion moves
substances important to the brain such as glucose, amino
acids, and specific ion
■​ Transcytosis moves larger substances into and out
of the brain
○​ Route of Nervous System
■​ Stimulus
●​ Somatic Stimulus: skin, skeletal muscle, joints
●​ Visceral Stimulus: organs (digestive and urinary tract)
■​ Receptor
■​ Sensory Nerve
■​ Integration Center
■​ Motor Neuron
■​ Effector
■​ Response
○​ Organization of Nervous System
■​ Central Nervous System
●​ Brain and spinal cord
●​ Integration and control centers
■​ Peripheral Nervous System
●​ Cranial and spinal nerves
●​ Communication lines between the central nervous system and the
body
●​ Sensory Division:
○​ Somatic and visceral sensory nerve fibers
○​ Conducts impulses from receptors to the central nervous
system
●​ Motor Division
○​ Motor nerve fibers
○​ Conducts impulses from the central nervous system to the
effectors
 ○​ Somatic Nervous System:
■​ Somatic motor nerve fibers
■​ Conducts impulses from receptors to the central
nervous system
○​ Autonomic Nervous System
■​ Visceral motor nerve fibers
■​ Conducts impulses from the central nervous
system to the smooth and cardiac muscles
■​ Sympathetic Division:
●​ Mobilizes body systems during activity
■​ Parasympathetic Division:
●​ Conserves energy
●​ Promotes housekeeping functions during
rest
○​ Types of Stromal Neural Cells
■​ Central Nervous System​
●​ Astrocytes: most abundant neuroglia
○​ Work with capillaries and neurons
○​ Contains podocytes
■​ Wraps around capillaries to make them less
permeable
○​ Guides young neurons
●​ Microglial cells: defensive cells
○​ Initiates phagocytosis
●​ Ependymal cells: line cerebrospinal fluid-filled cavities
○​ Either columnar ciliated or squamous non-ciliated
○​ Located in ventricles
●​ Oligodendrocytes: form myelin sheaths around nerve fibers
○​ Wrap around many nerve fibers
○​ Mainly used in embryo
■​ Peripheral Nervous System
●​ Satellite and Schwann Cells: surround neurons
○​ Neuron Anatomy
○​ Myelin: whitish protein lipid substance
■​ Myelin sheath: surrounds the axon to provide insulation and less
permeability
●​ Protect and electrically insulate axon
●​ Increase speed on nerve impulse transmission
■​ Myelinated fibers: segmented sheath surrounds most long or large
diameter axons
■​ Unmyelinated fibers: do not contain sheath
●​ Conduct impulses more slowly
■​ Peripheral Nervous System
●​ Myelin is formed from Schwann cells
 ○​ Wraps around axon in a jelly roll fashion
○​ One cell = one segment of myelin sheath
●​ Neurilemma: peripheral bulge containing nucleus and most of
cytoplasm
●​ Plasma membrane have less protein
○​ No channels or carriers = good electrical insulators
○​ Interlocking proteins bind adjacent myelin membranes
■​ Central Nervous System
●​ Myelin formed form Oligodendrocytes processes
○​ Cell body and nucleus remain independent
○​ Myelin sheath gap is present
○​ No outer collar of perinuclear cytoplasm
○​ Thinnest fibers are unmyelinated
■​ Covered by long extensions of adjacent neuroglia
○​ Damage to the Peripheral Nerve + Nerve Regeneration
■​ Axon fragments
●​ The cut axon seal themselves off
●​ Axon transport is interrupted causing cut ends to swell
●​ Without access to the cell body the axon begins to disintegrate
distal to the injury
■​ Schwann cells and macrophages clean out dead axon distal to the injury
●​ Surviving Schwann cells engulf the myelin fragments and secrete
chemicals that recruit macrophages
●​ Macrophages help dispose of the debris and release chemicals
that stimulate Schwann cells to divide
■​ Axon filaments grow through a regeneration tube
●​ Schwann cells release growth factors and express cell adhesion
molecules that exchange axon growth
●​ Schwann cells line up along the tube of remaining endoneurium
forming a regeneration tube that guides the regenerating axon
sprouts across the gap to their original contacts
■​ The axon regenerates and a new myelin sheath forms
●​ Schwann cells protect and support the regenerating axon and
ultimately produce a new myelin sheath
○​ Lack of regeneration in the Central Nervous System
■​ Myelin within the central nervous system lacks neurilemma due to
oligodendrocyte cell body remaining separate
■​ Formation of Glial scar form oligodendrocyte precursor cells
●​ Release of growth-inhibitory substances that prevent neural and
myelin regeneration
○​ CSPG: Chondroitin Sulphate Proteoglycan Chain
■​ Initiates growth-inhibitory substances
○​ Autonomic Pathway​
■​ Parasympathetic Nervous System: Energy Conservation and Restoration
System
●​ Hormone: acetylcholine
●​ Neural fibers are located in brain stem and S2 - S4
●​ What occurs:
○​ Gastrointestinal tract and Kidneys are active
○​ Low heart rate and respiration rates
○​ Low blood flow to skeletal muscles
■​ Sent to the digestive system
○​ Hormone control is short and local
■​ Sympathetic Nervous System: Fight-or-Flight Response
●​ What occurs:
○​ Increased cardiac and respiratory rates
○​ Increased blood flow to skeletal muscles
○​ Decreased blood flow to GI tract and kidneys
○​ Hormone control is global and long lasting
●​ Main Hormones: released into blood from adrenal medulla
○​ Norepinephrine: neurotransmitter
○​ Epinephrine: adrenalin
■​ How the Message is Sent
●​ All pathways have 2 neurons in series
●​ Preganglionic neuron: projects to the autonomic ganglion
●​ Postganglionic neuron: projects to target tissue
○​ Ganglion: a group of nerve cell bodies that are outside the
central nervous system
■​ Contain interneurons
●​ Integrating centers
■​ Each preganglionic neuron will synapse with 8 - 32
postganglionic neurons
■​ The Adrenals
●​ Adrenal cortex secretes steroid based hormones
●​ Adrenal medulla: contains postganglionic neurons without
dendrites or axons
●​ Secretes into the bloodstream
○​ Epinephrine - 85%
○​ Norepinephrine - 15%
○​ Dopamine - very little
■​ Neurotransmitters
●​ Acetylcholine: autonomic preganglionic
○​ Receptors
■​ Parasympathetic
●​ Muscarinic: cardiac or smooth muscle
inhibition or gland stimulation
 ●​ Nicotinic: stimulate a response to
postganglionic neuron
■​ Sympathetic: adrenergic
●​ Alpha: stimulates
●​ Beta: Inhibits
■​ Cannabis
●​ Endocannabinoid system
○​ Anandamide
○​ 2 - arachidonoylglycerol
○​ Receptors: CB1, CB2
●​ Phytocannabinoid System
○​ THC: tetrahydrocannabinol
■​ Binds to CB1
■​ In weed
○​ CBD: cannabidiol
■​ Binds to CB2