ZIMBABWE OPEN UNIVERSITY

bp

Diploma in Education
(Primary)

Curriculum Development in
Primary School

Module DEP104
Published by: The Zimbabwe Open University

P.O. Box MP1119

Mount Pleasant

Harare, ZIMBABWE

The Zimbabwe Open University is a distance teaching and

open learning institution.

Year: 2006

Cover design: B. Pillay

Layout : S. Mushore

Typeset in Times New Roman, 12 point on auto leading

© Zimbabwe Open University. All rights reserved. No part of this

publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission
of the Zimbabwe Open University.
Authors: T. Mapolisa
MEd. (EAPPS) (ZOU)
BEd.(EAPPS)(UZ)
[Link].

R. Matsinde

V. Mawere

S. Zivanayi

Content Reviewer: M. Rukanda

Editor: L. Ndlovu
 To the student
The demand for skills and knowledge academics, technologists and
and the requirement to adjust and administrators of varied backgrounds,
change with changing technology, places training, skills, experiences and personal
on us a need to learn continually interests. The combination of all these
throughout life. As all people need an qualities inevitably facilitates the
education of one form or another, it has production of learning materials that
been found that conventional education teach successfully any student, anywhere
institutions cannot cope with the and far removed from the tutor in space
demand for education of this magnitude. and time. We emphasize that our
It has, however, been discovered that learning materials should enable you to
distance education and open learning, solve both work-related problems and
now also exploiting e-learning other life challenges.
technology, itself an offshoot of e-
commerce, has become the most To avoid stereotyping and professional
effective way of transmitting these narrowness, our teams of learning
appropriate skills and knowledge materials producers come from different
required for national and international universities in and outside Zimbabwe,
development. and from Commerce and Industry. This
openness enables ZOU to produce
Since attainment of independence in materials that have a long shelf life and
1980, the Zimbabwe Government has are sufficiently comprehensive to cater
spearheaded the development of for the needs of all of you, our learners
distance education and open learning at in different walks of life. You, the
tertiary level, resulting in the learner, have a large number of optional
establishment of the Zimbabwe Open courses to choose from so that the
University (ZOU) on 1 March, 1999. knowledge and skills developed suit the
career path that you choose. Thus, we
ZOU is the first, leading, and currently strive to tailor-make the learning
materials so that they can suit your
the only university in Zimbabwe entirely
personal and professional needs. In
dedicated to teaching by distance
developing the ZOU learning materials,
education and open learning. We are
we are guided by the desire to provide
determined to maintain our leading
you, the learner, with all the knowledge
position by both satisfying our clients
and skill that will make you a better
and maintaining high academic performer all round, be this at certificate,
standards. To achieve the leading diploma, undergraduate or postgraduate
position, we have adopted the course level. We aim for products that will settle
team approach to producing the varied comfortably in the global village and
learning materials that will holistically competing successfully with anyone. Our
shape you, the learner to be an all-round target is, therefore, to satisfy your quest
performer in the field of your own for knowledge and skills through
choice. Our course teams comprise distance education and open learning
Any course or programme launched by ZOU is you may never meet in life. It is our intention
conceived from the cross-pollination of ideas to bring the computer, email, internet chat-
from consumers of the product, chief among rooms, whiteboards and other modern methods
whom are you, the students and your employers. of delivering learning to all the doorsteps of
We consult you and listen to your critical analysis our learners, wherever they may be. For all these
of the concepts and how they are presented. We developments and for the latest information on
also consult other academics from universities what is taking place at ZOU, visit the ZOU
the world over and other international bodies website at [Link]
whose reputation in distance education and open
learning is of a very high calibre. We carry out Having worked as best we can to prepare your
pilot studies of the course outlines, the content learning path, hopefully like John the Baptist
and the programme component. We are only prepared for the coming of Jesus Christ, it is my
too glad to subject our learning materials to hope as your Vice Chancellor that all of you,
academic and professional criticism with the will experience unimpeded success in your
hope of improving them all the time. We are educational endeavours. We, on our part, shall
determined to continue improving by changing continually strive to improve the learning
the learning materials to suit the idiosyncratic materials through evaluation, transformation of
needs of our learners, their employers, research, delivery methodologies, adjustments and
economic circumstances, technological sometimes complete overhauls of both the
development, changing times and geographic materials and organizational structures and
location, in order to maintain our leading culture that are central to providing you with
position. We aim at giving you an education the high quality education that you deserve. Note
that will work for you at any time anywhere and that your needs, the learner ‘s needs, occupy a
in varying circumstances and that your central position within ZOU’s core activities.
performance should be second to none.
Best wishes and success in your studies.
As a progressive university that is forward
looking and determined to be a successful part
of the twenty-first century, ZOU has started to
introduce e-learning materials that will enable
you, our students, to access any source of
information, anywhere in the world through
internet and to communicate, converse, discuss _____________________
and collaborate synchronously and Prof. Primrose Kurasha
asynchronously, with peers and tutors whom Vice Chancellor
Contents

Overview

Overview of Module ___________________________________________________________ 1

Unit One: The Concept Curriculum

1.0 _______ I n t r o d u c t i o n ____________________________________________________ 3

1.1 _______ Unit Objectives _________________________________________________ 3
1.2 _______ Meaning of Curriculum ________________________________________ 4
1.3 _______ Types of Curriculum ___________________________________________ 5
__________ 1.3.1 The Planned Curriculum __________________________________ 5
__________ 1.3.2. The Achieved Curriculum _________________________________ 5
__________ 1.3.3 The Hidden Curriculum ____________________________________ 5
__________ Activity 1.1 _____________________________________________________ 6
1.4 _______ Foundations of the Curriculum __________________________________ 6
__________ 1.4.1 Philosophical Foundations of the Curriculum _______________ 6
__________ 1.4.2 Sociological Foundations of the Curriculum _________________ 7
__________ 1.4.3 Psychological Foundations of the Curriculum ________________ 7
__________ 1.4.4 Historical Foundations of the Curriculum ___________________ 7
__________ Activity 1.2 _____________________________________________________ 7
1.5 _______ Determinants of the Curriculum ________________________________ 8
__________ 1.5.1 Ideology ___________________________________________________ 8
__________ 1.5.2 The Economy ______________________________________________ 8
__________ 1.5.3 Technology ________________________________________________ 8
__________ 1.5.4 Community ________________________________________________ 9
__________ 1.5.5 The Church _______________________________________________ 9
______ Activity 1.3 _____________________________________________________ 9
1.6 _______ S u m m a r y ______________________________________________________ 9
1.7 _______ R e f e r e n c e s ____________________________________________________ 10
Unit Two: Curriculum Planning

2.0 _______ I n t r o d u c t i o n ___________________________________________________ 11

2.1 _______ Unit Objectives ________________________________________________ 12
2.2 _______ Curriculum Planning and Development _________________________ 12
__________ Aims and Objectives ____________________________________________ 12
__________ Content/Subject Matter ________________________________________ 12
__________ Methods or Learning Experiences _______________________________ 13
__________ E v a l u a t i o n ____________________________________________________ 13
__________ Activity 2.2 ____________________________________________________ 15
__________ Curriculum Development ______________________________________ 15
2.3 _______ Stages in Curriculum Development _____________________________ 15
__________ Activity 2.3 ____________________________________________________ 16
2.4 _______ Approaches to Curriculum Development ________________________ 16
2.5 _______ Centralised Approaches ________________________________________ 17
2.6 _______ Decentralized Approaches ______________________________________ 17
2.7 _______ Zimbabwean Experience _______________________________________ 17
__________ The Central Curriculum Unit - CDU Operations _________________ 17
__________ Activity 2.4 ____________________________________________________ 18
__________ Arguments for the Centralized Curriculum _____________________ 18
__________ Activity 2.5 ____________________________________________________ 19
__________ Limitations of the Centralised Curriculum ______________________ 19
__________ Activity 2.6 ____________________________________________________ 20
2.8 _______ Challenges and Problems in Curriculum Development __________ 20
__________ Activity 2.7 ____________________________________________________ 20
2.9 _______ Suggestions for the Way Forward _________________________________ 21
__________ Activity 2.8 ____________________________________________________ 21
2.10 ______ Summary _____________________________________________________ 22
2.11 ______ R e f e r e n c e s ____________________________________________________ 22

Unit Three: Curriculum Organization

3.0 _______ Introduction __________________________________________________ 23

3.1 _______ Unit Objectives ________________________________________________ 24
3.2 _______ Definition of Terms ____________________________________________ 24
3.3 _______ Curriculum Organization ______________________________________ 24
__________ 3.3.1 The Common Core Curriculum ____________________________ 24
__________ 3.3.2 Community-Centred Learning _____________________________ 25
__________ Characteristics of Community-Centred Learning ________________ 26
__________ 3.3.3 Subject-Centred Curriculum ______________________________ 27
__________ Characteristics of Subject-Centred Curriculum _________________ 28
__________ 3.3.4 Integrated Curriculum ____________________________________ 28
__________ Activity 3.1 ____________________________________________________ 31
__________ 3.3.5 Child-Centred Curriculum ________________________________ 31
__________ Characteristics of the Child-Centred Curriculum _______________ 32
__________ Activity 3.3 ____________________________________________________ 33
3.4 _______ S u m m a r y _____________________________________________________ 33
3.5 _______ R e f e r e n c e s ____________________________________________________ 34
Unit Four: Models of Curriculum Development

4.0 _______ I n t r o d u c t i o n ___________________________________________________ 37

4.1 _______ Unit Objectives ________________________________________________ 38
4.2 _______ Definition of the term ‘Model’ __________________________________ 38
__________ Activity 4.1 ____________________________________________________ 38
4.3 _______ Models of Curriculum Development ____________________________ 39
__________ 4.3.1 Ralph Tyler’s Objectives Model _____________________________ 39
__________ 4.3.3 Lawton’s Model ____________________________________________ 42
__________ Activities 4.2 ___________________________________________________ 44
__________ 4.3.4 Process Model _____________________________________________ 44
4.4 _______ S u m m a r y _____________________________________________________ 45
__________ Activity 4.3 ____________________________________________________ 45
4.5 _______ R e f e r e n c e s ____________________________________________________ 46

Unit Five: Curriculum Implementation

5.0 _______ I n t r o d u c t i o n ___________________________________________________ 47

5.1 _______ Unit Objectives ________________________________________________ 47
5.2 _______ Definition of Curriculum Implementation ______________________ 48
__________ Activity 5.1 ____________________________________________________ 50
5.3 _______ Factors that Promote Effective Curriculum Implementation _____ 50
__________ Activity 5.2 ____________________________________________________ 51
5.4 _______ Challenges to Curriculum Implementation _____________________ 51
__________ Activity 5.3 ____________________________________________________ 53
5.5 _______ S o l u t i o n s ______________________________________________________ 53
__________ Activity 5.5 ____________________________________________________ 54
5.6 _______ S u m m a r y _____________________________________________________ 54
__________ Activity 5.6 ____________________________________________________ 54
5.7 _______ R e f e r e n c e s ____________________________________________________ 55

Unit Six: Curriculum Evaluation

6.0 _______ I n t r o d u c t i o n ___________________________________________________ 57

6.1 _______ Unit Objectives ________________________________________________ 58
6.2 _______ Definition of Terms ____________________________________________ 58
__________ E v a l u a t i o n ____________________________________________________ 58
6.3 _______ Role and Purpose of Evaluation _________________________________ 59
__________ Roles and Purposes of Evaluation _______________________________ 60
6.4 _______ Personnel for Evaluation _______________________________________ 60
6.5 _______ Roles of Curriculum Evaluators ________________________________ 61
__________ 6.5.1 Curriculum Planners _____________________________________ 61
__________ 6.5.2 Professional Evaluators ____________________________________ 61
__________ 6.5.3 Education Officers ________________________________________ 61
__________ 6.5.4 Teachers __________________________________________________ 61
__________ 6.5.5 Pupils (Students) __________________________________________ 62
__________ 6.5.6 Parents (Other Stakeholders) ______________________________ 62
__________ Activity 6.1 _____________________________________________________ 6
 6.6 _______ Foci of Curriculum Evaluation ________________________________ 62
6.6.1 ______ Formative Evaluation __________________________________________ 62
__________ 6.6.2 Summative Evaluation ____________________________________ 63
__________ Activity 6.2 ____________________________________________________ 63
6.7 _______ Summary _____________________________________________________ 63
6.8 _______ R e f e r e n c e s ____________________________________________________ 64

Unit Seven: Curriculum Change and Innovation

7.0 _______ Introduction __________________________________________________ 65

7.1 _______ Unit Objectives ________________________________________________ 66
7.2 _______ Definition of Curriculum Change and Innovation _______________ 66
__________ Curriculum Change ___________________________________________ 66
__________ Curriculum Innovation ________________________________________ 66
__________ Activity 7.1 ____________________________________________________ 67
7.3 _______ Rationale for Curriculum Change and Innovation _______________ 67
__________ Activity 7.2 ____________________________________________________ 67
7.4 _______ Innovation Process _____________________________________________ 68
__________ Activity 7.3 ____________________________________________________ 68
7.5 _______ Change Agents _________________________________________________ 68
__________ 7.5.1 The Government __________________________________________ 68
__________ 7.5.2 Curriculum Development Unit ____________________________ 69
__________ 7.5.3 Universities and Colleges of Education _____________________ 69
__________ 7.5.4 Education Officers ________________________________________ 69
__________ 7.5.5 School Heads ______________________________________________ 69
__________ 7.5.6 Teachers __________________________________________________ 69
__________ 7.5.7 Parents ___________________________________________________ 69
__________ Activity 7.4 ____________________________________________________ 70
7.6 _______ Change Strategies ______________________________________________ 70
__________ 7.6.1 The Research, Development and Diffusion Model (R, D _________
__________ and D) _________________________________________________________ 70
__________ Advantages ____________________________________________________ 71
__________ D i s a d v a n t a g e s _________________________________________________ 71
__________ Activity 7.5 ____________________________________________________ 71
__________ 7.6.2 The Problem-solver Model _________________________________ 71
__________ Activity 7.6 ____________________________________________________ 72
__________ Advantages of the Problem-Solver Model _________________________ 72
__________ Disadvantages of the Problem-solver Model ______________________ 73
__________ Activity 7.7 ____________________________________________________ 73
7.7 _______ Zimbabwean Experience _______________________________________ 73
7.8 _______ Challenges in Curriculum Change and Innovation _______________ 73
__________ Activity 7.8 ____________________________________________________ 74
7.9 _______ S u g g e s t i o n s ____________________________________________________ 74
__________ Activity 7.9 ____________________________________________________ 75
7.10 ______ S u m m a r y _____________________________________________________ 76
7.11 ______ R e f e r e n c e s ____________________________________________________ 76
Unit Eight: Gender Issues in Education

8.0 _______ I n t r o d u c t i o n ___________________________________________________ 77

8.1 _______ Unit Objectives ________________________________________________ 78
8.2 _______ Why Gender Issues? ____________________________________________ 78
__________ Activity 8.1 ____________________________________________________ 79
8.3 _______ Issues and Areas of Concern ____________________________________ 79
__________ 8.3.1 Prejudice _________________________________________________ 79
__________ Activity 8.2 ____________________________________________________ 80
__________ 8.3.2 Discrimination ___________________________________________ 80
__________ Activity 8.3 ____________________________________________________ 81
__________ 8.3.3 Stereotypes _______________________________________________ 81
__________ Activity 8.4 ____________________________________________________ 84
8.4 _______ Language and Curriculum Materials ____________________________ 84
__________ Activity 8.5 ____________________________________________________ 87
8.5 _______ Implementation of Gender Balance _____________________________ 87
__________ Activity 8.6 ____________________________________________________ 89
8.6 _______ General Implications to Curriculum ____________________________ 89
8.7 _______ Summary _____________________________________________________ 90
__________ Activity 8.7 ____________________________________________________ 90
8.8 _______ R e f e r e n c e s ____________________________________________________ 91
 Overview

Overview
he question concerning what should be taught in schools is a burning
T one in every society. Parents expect their children to receive the best
education. In order to arrive at what can be regarded as the best education,
we need to know how to arrive at that destination. The curriculum is important
because it is the means by which we achieve educational goals.
In this module, therefore, we introduce the concepts, curriculum, evaluation,
change and innovation. A wide range of issues entailed in these concepts are
explored in order to help you make informed decisions in as far as curriculum
development is concerned.

W e also analyse the Zimbabwean context (experience) in relation to curriculum

development, implementation and evaluation. In brief, the module deals with
the following areas of study:

» Concept, “Curriculum”

» Patterns of Curriculum Organisation

» Curriculum Planning, Design and Development

» Models of Curriculum Development

» Curriculum Implementation

» Curriculum Evaluation

» Curriculum Change and Innovation

» Gender Issues in Education.

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Zimbabwe Open University 1
 1
Unit One

The Concept Curriculum

1.0 Introduction
I n this unit, we introduce the concept curriculum. Our main focus is to make
you understand the term curriculum. We also explain the forms that may
operate in schools and identify the foundations and determinants of the
curriculum. At the end of the unit, we give you a summary in order to highlight
the major ideas discussed in the unit.

1.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of the unit, you should be able to:

v define the term curriculum

v identify the foundations and determinants of the curriculum
v analyse the role of the foundations and the determinants
of the curriculum
v analyse the types of curriculum that may operate in
schools.
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

1.2 Meaning of Curriculum

As a student of this discipline, it is important that you understand the meaning
of the term curriculum. Before we define it, let us make it clear to you that
there is no consensus on the meaning of the word ‘curriculum’. We start by
defining the word curriculum by looking at what other ‘curriculumists’ have
said.

Dekker and Lemmer (1998:430) write in this regard:

The curriculum refers to the planned and organized activities pupils undertake in
school which include the subject matter they are exposed to … These activities are
closely linked to aims and differing values about the purpose of school.

The term ‘curriculum’ refers to what an individual learner experiences as a

result of the school environment (Carl 1995:73).

According to Barker (1998:117), the curriculum,

is all the learning which takes place in any educational establishment, which is either
a direct or indirect result of the planned activities which are practiced there’, (Barker
1998:117).

Mbiti (1975:88) states that the curriculum means what is taught at any given
level of the school system.

The four above stated definitions have something in common. They all agree
that the individual gets the learning from school activities. Dekker and Lemmer
(1998) and Barker (1998) show that learning activities are planned whilst
Carl (1995) and Mbiti (1975) are silent on the part of planning. The definitions
by Dekker and Lemmer (1998) and Barker (1998) subscribe to a narrow
view of the curriculum because they see the curriculum as the planned activities
only.

On the other hand, the definitions by Mbiti (1975) and Carl (1995) take a
wide view of the curriculum. They regard everything learnt at school as part
of the curriculum. We can, therefore, draw our own working definition from
these ideas and say that curriculum refers to the planned and unplanned learning
activities experienced by learners in the school system.

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4 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 1 The Concept Curriculum

1.3 Types of Curriculum

1.3.1 The Planned Curriculum
The planned curriculum refers to the intended activity by the planners and
policy makers. It is the official document which should be implemented by
teachers, (Gatawa 1999). If you, the teachers, teach Music as it is laid down
by the curriculum planners, this becomes the planned curriculum operating in
schools.

1.3.2. The Achieved Curriculum

The achieved curriculum comes about as a result of the interpretation of the
curriculum by you, the teachers. For example, if you only teach religious
songs in Music and leave other aspects of Music, what you are teaching is the
achieved curriculum. The achieved curriculum is the reality of what is happening
in the school.

1.3.3 The Hidden Curriculum

Before we give a working definition of the hidden curriculum, let us analyse
the word ‘hidden’. In simple terms, what is hidden cannot be easily seen – it
is concealed. Then the word curriculum as we have seen, refers to those
learning activities the learner does whilst in a school set-up. The implication is
that these learning activities are not stated but are built into the curriculum.
Let us now find out what other curriculum planners say. The hidden curriculum
is ‘...the tacit teaching that goes on in schools…’ (Urevbu 1985:57). The
word tacit implies learning gained through content not explicitly stated.

Another idea that brings out the concept of the hidden curriculum comes from
Dekker and Lemmer (1998) who states that singing of the national anthem,
canning and other forms of punishment reveal hidden messages which pertain
to traditions and value systems. We can state that canning teaches pupils that
offenders are punished. Society in general does this by sending criminals to
jail. Singing of the national anthem is a way of initiating pupils into nationhood.
Pupils are unconsciously taught to love their country and dedicate themselves
to the values of their society.

Urevbu (1985) sheds more light on the hidden curriculum by arguing that
males are inherently better in Science and Mathematics than females.

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Zimbabwe Open University 5
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

The word, ‘inherent’ pertains to some ability one is born with. The idea here
is that boys are born with the ability to do well in Mathematics and girls are
not. As a result some teachers have been found to pass comments such as,
‘Mathematics is a boys’ subject’. This has the effect of making boys and
girls believe accept this view. Aspects of the hidden curriculum are not part of
the official curriculum, but reflect the values and aspirations of teachers and
schools (Stenhouse 1975 and Gatawa 1999). Another example of the hidden
curriculum is reflected when girls are given tasks such as sweeping the classroom
or working on the teacher’s table. On the other hand, boys are asked to dig
in the garden. The implication is that boys are stronger than girls, so they are
able to do ‘hard’ jobs. The hidden curriculum therefore, socializes boys and
girls into the roles approved by society.

Activity 1.1
? v
v
In your own words, explain the concept curriculum.
Discuss the different types of curriculum.

1.4 Foundations of the Curriculum

Our next stop is at the foundations of the curriculum. Ndawi in Peresuh and
Nhundu (1998) states that the word ‘foundation’ is used in the same sense as
it is used to refer to the foundation of a house. A house is built on a foundation
and the same applies to the curriculum. It is grounded Philosophy, Psychology,
Sociology and History. Let us now explore the role played by each foundation
in the curriculum.

1.4.1 Philosophical Foundations of the Curriculum

Philosophy helps us to understand the kind of existence, epistemology and
values. The most important area of philosophy to the curriculum planner is
epistemology. Epistemology is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature
of knowledge and determination of what is worthwhile knowledge. So we
want to decide what kind of knowledge to include in the curriculum.

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6 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 1 The Concept Curriculum

1.4.2 Sociological Foundations of the Curriculum

Sociology is the study of social relationships in a society. It examines the
culture of different groups in society. Curriculum planners need to study
sociology in order to know the type of society the curriculum will serve. So as
curriculum planners, we need to be clear on the kind of person we want to
produce. We can do this if we know the common values, norms, knowledge,
skills and attitudes prioritised by a particular society. These are the ones
from which planners select what to include in the curriculum.

1.4.3 Psychological Foundations of the Curriculum

Curriculum planners make use of Psychology, especially the Psychology of
learning when planning the curriculum, (Stenhouse 1975). Psychology makes
planners aware of the needs, interests and developmental levels of the learner.
These are important if the planners are to come up with a curriculum that
meets the learning needs of learners. Failure to consult Psychology may see
planners coming up with a curriculum that is above or below the level of the
learners.

1.4.4 Historical Foundations of the Curriculum

History connects us with our past. Knowing about the past is important to
curriculum planners. History enables planners to understand and identify
aspects that should be maintained and those that should be dropped. The
colonial history of Zimbabwe has a noticeable impact on the curriculum and
education of the country. The academic curriculum that is in place is a product
of the past. It is now the duty of the curriculum planner to take note of those
events that have an impact on the curriculum.

Activity 1.2

? v Discuss the impact of Psychology and History on the planning

curriculum.

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Zimbabwe Open University 7
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

1.5 Determinants of the Curriculum

There are other aspects that help to shape the curriculum. Some planners
refer to them as forces that shape the curriculum (Gatawa 1999 & Tanner &
Tanner 1978). On the other hand, Ndawi in Peresuh and Nhundu (1998) call
them the determinants of the curriculum. The forces that we are exploring are
ideology, economy, technology, community, church and learners.

1.5.1 Ideology
‘Ideology guides curriculum designers and users on interpretation and use of
curriculum materials at the school or classroom level’ (Gatawa 1999).
Curriculum planners will design a curriculum which is in line with the ideology
of the country. After independence Zimbabwe adopted Scientific Socialism
as its ideology. Science was to help the country achieve socialism. A change
in ideology normally results in curriculum change and innovation. You will
learn more about Curriculum Change and Innovation in Unit seven. When
Zimbabwe adopted Scientific Socialism as its ideology, Education with
Production and Political Economy were introduced in schools. Learners were
to marry theory with practice and apply what they would have learnt to real
life situations.

1.5.2 The Economy

The economy of a country generally refers to commerce, agriculture and
industry. The curriculum should develop skills that are needed by these three.
This means that the pupils must have knowledge, skills and values that will
make them fit into the economic structures of the country. (Barker 1998). In
Zimbabwe, the curriculum has tried to meet the requirements of the economy
by moving away from purely academic curriculum to one that also embraces
vocational aspects. Subjects like Agriculture, Carpentry, Building and
Woodwork, just to name a few, are being taught in schools.

1.5.3 Technology
Technology is another force that has a considerable impact on the curriculum.
The introduction of computers in the Zimbabwean curriculum is a response to
the demands of technology. Computer studies are included in primary schools,
secondary schools, colleges and universities. So technology has a part to play
in the shaping of the curriculum.

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8 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 1 The Concept Curriculum

1.5.4 Community
In general, community refers to society, but in this case we take it as that
specific group served by a particular school. Parents have been and are still
playing a role in the shaping of the curriculum. They pay fees, build classrooms
and buy books. Parents are willing to support curriculum projects they think
have a role to play in the education of their children. In most schools, parents
have bought computers and sport equipment so as to enable their children to
study these areas. Sporting activities such as tennis, swimming, cricket and
rugby that were found in Group A schools only are now found in schools in
high density suburbs and even in some rural areas.

1.5.5 The Church

The church is a very important force. Churches in Zimbabwe own schools.
They control the appointment of headmasters, flow of capital (money),
acquisition of learning materials and the curriculum in their schools. They can
block curriculum projects which they consider to be immoral. For example,
the Roman Catholic Church blocked the introduction of sex education in
schools (Nkomo 1995).

Activity 1.3
? v Which four determinants do you think play an important part
in shaping the curriculum? Why do you think so?

1.6 Summary
In this unit we have highlighted that:
œ Curriculum refers to the planned and unplanned learning activities that
pupils receive in a school set-up.
œ Planned curriculum is the intended curriculum by the planners and policy
makers.
œ The achieved curriculum is the one implemented in schools.
œ The foundations of the curriculum: Philosophy, Psychology, History and
Sociology help us organize the curriculum by providing the theoretical
basis.
œ Determinants are the forces or factors that shape the curriculum. These
include the economy, community, church, technology and ideology of
the country.
œ Unit 2 deals with Curriculum Planning and Development.
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Zimbabwe Open University 9
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

1.7 References
Barker, R. (1998). Educational and Related Concepts. Harare:
College Press.

Carl, L (1995) .Teacher Empowerment: Curriculum Development

London: Cape Town.

Gatawa, B. S.M. (1999). The Politics of the School Curriculum: An

Introduction. Harare: College Press.

Peresuh, M. and Nhundu, T. (Editors) (1998). Foundations of Education

in Africa. Harare: College Press.

Stenhouse, L. (1975). An Introduction to Curriculum Research and

Development. London: Heinneruann.

Tannet, D and Tanner, T (1978). Curriculum Development London:

Macmillan.

Urevbu, A.O (1985). Curriculum Studies. Lagos. Longman.

Recommended Reading

Gatawa, B.S.M. (1999). The Politics of the School Curriculum: An

Introduction. Harare: College Press.

Peresuh, M. and Nhundu, T. (1998). Foundations of Education in Africa

Harare: College Press.

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10 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 1 The Concept Curriculum

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Zimbabwe Open University 11
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

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12 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 1 The Concept Curriculum

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Zimbabwe Open University 13
 2Unit T wo

Curriculum Planning

2.0 Introduction

I n Unit 1, we looked at the concept curriculum, foundations and determinants

of the curriculum. In this unit, we introduce the concepts curriculum planning,
design and development. These terms will be defined and explained with
specific examples from the Zimbabwean experience. The five elements of the
curriculum, namely: aims and objectives, content, methods and evaluation are
discussed. We proceed to describe centralized and decentralized patterns of
curriculum planning and development. We also examine the approach used
for curriculum planning and development in Zimbabwe and the accompanying
challenges and problems. We then conclude the unit by offering suggestions
on the way forward.
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

2.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

v explain the key terms inn curriculum planning

v discuss the four major elements of the curriculum
v describe different types of curriculum.

2.2 Curriculum Planning and Development

It is the process of defining what we hope to achieve (aims and objectives),
the ground we are going to cover to achieve the intended goals (content), the
activities we consider likely to be most effective in helping us towards achieving
the goals (methods) and the procedures of assessing how successful we have
been in attaining our ends (evaluation) (Kelly, 1977). Curriculum planning,
therefore, involves the consideration and mapping out the four major elements
of the curriculum, namely: aims and objectives, content, methods and
evaluation. Curriculum aims and objectives define goals of school programmes
derived from the aspirations of a given society. Content or subject matter is
selected knowledge considered worthwhile by that society. Methods refer to
procedures or learning experiences which assist towards the attainment of
intended goals. Evaluation or assessment procedures measure the performance
of the curriculum providing feedback to teachers, students and the society at
large; examples are tests and examinations, as well as informing decisions at
various levels of the education system.

2.2.1 Aims and Objectives

Every curriculum has some definite goals to be achieved. The goals are derived
from three of the following major sources:
(a) the nature of knowledge
(b) the nature of students
(c) the social situation defined by pressures and needs of society (Gatawa,
1999).

2.2.2 Content/Subject Matter

Content refers to the bodies of knowledge, attitudes, values and skills in the
culture and society concerned (Gatawa, 1999). However, the process of
selecting from culture what students shall learn is not a simple task. There are
controversies surrounding the following:
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12 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 2 Curriculum Planning

œ What constitutes worthwhile knowledge?

œ Who decides what shall be taught and learnt?
œ What criteria are used in the selection of the content?

The various groups of people who have a direct interest in education, for
example, politicians, industry and commerce, donor agencies, parents,
students, and churches sometimes have opposing interests which may be
difficult to reconcile in order to arrive at a consensus.

2.2.3 Methods or Learning Experiences

These are the organization strategies provided by the school to facilitate learning.
Teaching methods are closely linked with society’s concept of knowledge,
for example, where knowledge is considered as a social practice, coming
from personal interactions with the environment, the learner is placed at the
centre of teaching and learning. In such a situation, teaching methods provide
opportunities for the learner to observe, think and practice. Habits of
independent study and group interactions are encouraged.

2.2.4 Evaluation
Evaluation is a system of feedback, providing information to planners, teachers,
pupils, parents and policy decision-makers. Evaluation outcomes guide policy
decisions on what types of curricula to adopt, administrative structures needed,
and financial support needed for educational programmes. Evaluation also
provides learners with information to weigh their strengths and weaknesses,
thus forming the basis for personal improvement. The following diagram
summarises the inter-relationship between aims, methods, content and
evaluation.

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Zimbabwe Open University 13
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

Social Content

Aims

Methods Content

Evaluation

Social Context

Figure 2.1

The social context, aims, methods, content and evaluation procedures influence
each other in the processes of curriculum planning and development.

2.2.5 Curriculum Design

Curriculum design is concerned with the problem of making a choice of what
should be the organizational basis or structural framework of the curriculum
(Urevbu, 1999). It is, therefore, part and parcel of curriculum planning and
development. It is concerned with questions such as:
œ Should the curriculum be organised on the basis of subject?
œ What pattern of curriculum organisation shall we adopt, for example,
child-centred, subject-centred, society-centred, etc.?
œ What roles shall the students; professional educators and the layman
play in selecting the curricula content?
œ How shall we go about organising the curriculum?

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14 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 2 Curriculum Planning

Activity 2.2

? v What is the organizational pattern of curricula in Zimbabwe?

What role is played by the following in determining the
organizational pattern of the curriculum in Zimbabwe:
a) teachers and headmasters,
(b) policy makers?

2.2.6 Curriculum Development

Urevbu (1999) views curriculum development as involving designing curricula
materials and trying them out, deploying manpower, other resources and time,
in relation to contextual issues such as political, economic, social, material,
administrative, historical and ideological considerations. To this end, extensive
research and investigation are required to demonstrate the relationships
between politics, ideology, economics and the school curriculum. Curriculum
development involves among others:
œ organising subject panels at various levels
œ planning and conducting needs assessment by curriculum committees
œ selection of aims, goals and objectives of instruction
œ selection of appropriate content, methods and evaluation procedures
œ development and provision of curriculum guides.
Curriculum development, therefore, implies the practical construction of the
curriculum. It is the act of bringing into existence some education programme
that is, the act of making the curriculum exist in schools after planning and
designing it. Oliva (1992) observes that curriculum development is a more
comprehensive (all embracing) term, which includes planning, implementation
and evaluation of the curriculum.

2.3 Stages in Curriculum Development

Curriculum development requires orderly thinking and organisation. Hilda Taba
in Oliva (1992) suggests the following seven stages of curriculum development:

Stage 1: Diagnosis of Needs

Determining the needs of the learner for whom the curriculum is intended.

Stage 2: Formulation of Objectives

Curriculum planners specify the objectives to be accomplished.

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Zimbabwe Open University 15
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

Stage 3: Selection of Content

The content to be studied is determined by the objectives formulated. The

objectives also determine the validity and significance of the content selected.

Stage 4: Organisation of Content

Curriculum planners determine at what levels and in what sequences the subject
matter will be placed. They also consider the maturity of learners and their
readiness to deal with the subject matter.

Stage 5: Selection of Learning Experiences

Curriculum planners select methods or strategies by which learners become

involved with the content.

Stage 6: Organisation of Learning Activities

Decisions are made on how to package the learning activities and in what
combinations and sequences they will be utilized.

Stage 7: Determining what to evaluate and the ways and means of doing it

Planners select appropriate means for assessing student achievement and for
determining whether the objectives of the curriculum have been met.

Activity 2.3
? v In your own words, explain the term, ‘curriculum
development’.
v Identify and explain what goes on at each of the seven stages
of curriculum development discussed in this section.

2.4 Approaches to Curriculum Development

An approach is the method through which one or a group of people brings a
curriculum plan into existence. In this section, we discuss two approaches to
curriculum planning and development. These are centralized and decentralized
curricula. An approach can comprise a number of models.

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16 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 2 Curriculum Planning

2.5 Centralised Approaches

In this approach, curriculum planning and development is done by a central
unit, for example, the Curriculum Development Unit (CDU) in the case of
Zimbabwe. Usually, the CDU is part of the Ministry of Education. In other
countries, for example, Malawi, the CDU is a parastatal (Gatawa, 1999). It
is also called the centre-periphery or top down approach to curriculum planning
and development. Under this approach, curricula materials are planned and
developed by a central national unit for use by schools at the periphery. The
modular system characterizing many subjects in post independent Zimbabwe
exemplifies this type of the curriculum, for example, the ZIM SCI modules
and Teacher's guides in various subjects both at secondary and primary
school levels.

2.6 Decentralized Approaches

Local authorities and/or school, plan and develop their own curriculum at a
local or grassroots level. Some western countries such as Britain use this
decentralized approach to curriculum development.

2.7 Zimbabwean Experience

Despite efforts towards the decentralization of certain aspects of education
by the government through the creation of the School Development
Associations (SDAs) and School Development Committees (SDCs),
Zimbabwe has by and large a centralized curriculum. Zimbabwe uses a national
centre, CDU to plan and develop curricula materials for the periphery
(schools).

2.7.1 The Central Curriculum Unit - CDU Operations

Curriculum aims, objectives, content, methods and evaluation procedures are
planned and developed by personnel based at the central controlling point,
the CDU as directed and instructed by education policy decision makers.
The curricular materials are disseminated to the schools for implementation
by the teachers. This process is carried out through a process of Research
Development and Dissemination (R.D. and D). Experts at the national centre
carry out research, develop curricular materials and disseminate them for use
by the schools (Bishop, 1995). Examples of curricular projects planned and
developed under this approach in post independent Zimbabwe include among
others:-
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Zimbabwe Open University 17
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

· The modular system characterizing many subjects in the 1980s and 1990s
œ The Zimbabwe Science Project (ZIMSCI) planned by the University
of Zimbabwe
œ Education with Production (EWP)
œ Zimbabwe Integrated Teacher Education Course (ZINTEC)
œ The Introduction of subjects like Political Economy in the 1980s, Social
Studies, Religious and Moral Education (RME), Environmental Studies,
National Strategic Studies and HIV and AIDS Education.

In theory, syllabus formation and revision should be done in close consultation

with a wide range of stakeholders including supervisors, teachers, colleges,
universities, researchers, industry and commerce. Representatives of these
interest groups constitute the National Subject Panel. Time and financial
constraints sometimes militate against the full participation of all these
stakeholders.

Activity 2.4
? v
(a)
Explain the following terms:
centralized curriculum, and
(b) decentralized curriculum.
v What is curriculum dissemination and curriculum
implementation?
v Explain the abbreviation R D and D in curriculum planning
and development.
v Identify any five curricular projects in post independent
Zimbabwe planned by a national centre for implementation
by the periphery.

Arguments for the Centralized Curriculum

The centrally planned and developed curriculum has many arguments in its
favour. To begin with, materials and books needed for the curriculum
operations are more likely to be available since the approach is supported by
the national pool of resources. This is particularly so, given that materials are
produced by specialists and experts at the national centre such as those
materials produced by the CDU in Zimbabwe. Backed by these national
resources, the quality of the materials is more likely to be better than those of
the decentralized curriculum. In addition, the approach ensures that national
priorities are given adequate emphasis. Besides, this approach is very rational
since the national centre commands resources and it ensures immediate
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18 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 2 Curriculum Planning

implementation with conformity given that the national government can use
legislation to determine procedures of implementation.

Thompson in Gatawa (1999) argues that the centralized curriculum caters

best for developing countries like Zimbabwe. The argument is that Zimbabwe
is young, unstable, relatively poor and a sizeable number of teachers are poorly
qualified needing the support of national experts coordinated at the centre.
The approach is also viable in a society that might have opposing values such
as Zimbabwe with its plural politics which make consensus building difficult.
Given the phenomenon of national examinations, centralized curriculum planning
ensures that pupils are exposed to the same learning experiences. Individual
students are also not disadvantaged when they transfer from one school to
another.

Activity 2.5

? v Discuss the arguments advanced in favour of the centralized

curriculum.
v In your opinion, how relevant are these arguments to your
school situation?

2.7.3 Limitations of the Centralised Curriculum

The centralized curriculum has its own shortcomings. The approach requires
a strong back-up system in the form of a large inspectorate to ensure conformity
(Gatawa, 1999). This might be contradicted by processes of staff rationalization
and downsizing of public service witnessed in Zimbabwe in recent years. A
centralized curriculum tends to deny the teacher his/her autonomy (freedom)
in the classroom for any possible initiatives, thereby reducing his/her job
satisfaction, self-status and his/her efficiency because it is too regulated.
Circular directives characterize this approach. For this reason, teachers may
take long to understand what the curriculum is about because they are not
actively involved at the planning stage. Insufficient information might, in turn,
lead to lack of understanding and appreciation of the curricula materials on
the part of teachers, students and parents.

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Zimbabwe Open University 19
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

Activity 2.6
? v
v
Outline the shortcomings of the centralized curriculum.
Suggest ways of improving this approach.

2.8 Challenges and Problems in Curriculum

Development
The process of curriculum development faces many problems. The cost of
research, development of curricular materials, pre-servicing and in-servicing
teachers can be so high that it strains the national purse. New curricular materials
render teachers unskilled. This unsettles teachers who would prefer to remain
in their old ways of doing things which they are familiar with. As an example,
when a new method of teaching is introduced, teachers on their own may
choose not to adopt the new method even though scheme books and lesson
plans might reflect the recommended new method.

In developing countries, teacher workloads are not very conducive to the

effective implementation of the curriculum. The teacher-pupil ratio in some
cases is as high as 1:80. In such cases, the teacher’s attempt to understanding
pupils' needs and problems might not be possible. These large classes may
also lack adequate basic resources such as teaching-learning equipment in
the form of classrooms, chalkboards, textbooks, stationery and library facilities.
In some cases, the school head’s leadership style might also create a hostile
school environment for the teachers. Many teachers also lack expertise in
curriculum development issues to make it possible to make meaningful
curricular improvements at the school level. The top down approaches which
are used in many developing countries tend to dis-empower the classroom
teacher.

Activity 2.7
? v Identify the challenges or problems facing curriculum planners
in general.
v How far do these challenges or problems apply to:
(a) the Zimbabwean situation?
(b) your school?
v In your opinion, how might these challenges referred to
above be dealt with?

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20 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 2 Curriculum Planning

2.9 Suggestions for the Way Forward

There may be need to give teachers more opportunities to share their
experiences during the process of curriculum planning and development.
Nkomo (1995:135) argues that, “many teachers do want change in their
work … they do not like the way change is currently being introduced (in
Zimbabwe) but most are not against change per se”. Bacchus (1991) adds
that teachers need a degree of autonomy to carry out new ideas. Teacher
involvement in curriculum planning ensures that curriculum developers are not
different from the users thereby closing the gap between curriculum planners
and curriculum users.

Curriculum planning and development intends to change people. Therefore,

there is need to use persuasive techniques which result in changing people’s
attitudes, ideas and behaviours through discussions, and other forms of group
activity either in or away from schools.

Bacchus (1991) argues that one of the sources of resistance to curricular

change can be the general public and that this might be reduced through
attempts to involve community members in the process of curriculum planning
and development. To this end, parents should be seriously involved in all
aspects of curriculum planning and development. Hawes (1979) contends
that planning is for people and the fruits of planning is measured in the quality
of their lives. People have different wants and needs for themselves and their
children and would like to be consulted rather than to be told what to do.
Perhaps, there is need for a mechanism in Zimbabwe by which good practices
initiated by schools and felt needs expressed by schools are passed, “up the
education system” and are seen to be dealt with sincerely. There is also need
for ongoing discussions among policy makers, CDU, publishers and teachers,
to harmonise educational needs and operations.

Activity 2.8
? v
(a)
Define and explain the following terms:
Curriculum Planning
(b) Curriculum Design
(c) Curriculum Development.
v What are the merits and demerits of centralizing curriculum
development in Zimbabwe?

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Zimbabwe Open University 21
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

v Describe the RD and D approach to curriculum planning and

development. What justifications are advanced in its favour
as a suitable approach for curriculum development in
Zimbabwe?
v Explain the importance of involving classroom teachers at all
stages of curriculum planning and development and the
problems that make it difficult to do so in Zimbabwe.

2.10 Summary
In this unit, we explained the concepts curriculum planning, design and
development. We also described the centralized and decentralized approaches
to curriculum development with special emphasis on the strengths and limitations
of the centralized curriculum which relates to the Zimbabwean context. We
then proceeded to look at Zimbabwe’s approach to curriculum development,
examining both the strengths and shortcomings associated with it. We identified
a number of curriculum projects in post independent Zimbabwe. We also
outlined the challenges faced by curriculum planners and made suggestions
on the way forward. Unit 3 examines models of Curriculum Development.

2.11 References
Bacchus, K. (1991).Curriculum Reform. Commonwealth Secretariat
London.
Bishop, G. (1995). Innovation in Education, MacMillan Education Ltd.
London.
Gatawa, B.S.M. (1999). The Politics of the School Curriculum, An
Introduction. College Press, Harare.
Hawes, H. (1979). Curriculum and Reality in African Primary Schools.
Longman, Singapore.
Kelly, A.V. (1977). The Curriculum Theory and Practice. Harper and
Row Ltd. London.
Nkomo, G.M. (1995). Curriculum Implementation, Change and
Innovation:
Centre for Distance Education Module EA 3 AD 3030. University
of Zimbabwe.
Oliva, P.F. (1992). Developing the Curriculum. Harper Collins Publishers.
New York.
Urevbu, A.O. (1999). Curriculum Studies. Longman, Lagos.

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22 Zimbabwe Open University
 3
Unit Three

Curriculum Organization

3.0 Introduction

W e have introduced you to curriculum planning and development in the

previous unit, we also have given insights into how curriculum
development is done in Zimbabwe. The problems that are encountered in
developing the curriculum were also highlighted.

In this unit, we are going a step further. We now focus on curriculum

organization. We need to know what these patterns are and how they are
used in curriculum development. We focus on the following patterns:
œ Common core Curriculum

œ Community centred learning

œ Subject centred curriculum

œ Integrated curriculum

œ Learner centred curriculum.

Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

3.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

v identify methods of curriculum organization

v describe patterns of curriculum organization.

3.2 Definition of Terms

Integrate – bring all parts together to make one whole

Rational – show good sense in doing something

Validate – apply law to make something acceptable

Distinct – something unique and clear

3.3 Curriculum Organization

When we focus on patterns of curriculum organization we are basically trying
to answer this question, “What is it that we should teach children?” This
question has been debated upon for a very long time and there is not one
answer to it. In general, what is taught to children depends upon the social,
cultural, economic and development aspects of each country.

Furthermore, we also ask such questions as; Should the curriculum be geared
towards societal interests or children’s interests? Should there be a common
curriculum for all children? Some children live in rural areas and others in
urban areas. Should they be taught the same knowledge? The answers to
these questions demand that there be some form of organization of knowledge,
hence we have come up with the various methods of curriculum organization
which we now discuss.

3.3.1 The Common Core Curriculum

This is a content-based type of curriculum organization; the common body of
knowledge and skills which should be taught to all children despite their ability.
It is knowledge and understanding of various modes of experience that are
central to education and human development (Bishop 1985).
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24 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 3 Curriculum Organization

Holt (1980:96) states that, “the common core curriculum is concerned with
… integrated attitudes and a self conceptual framework. It is not concerned
with subjects… Except as labels of convenience.” Holt stresses that there
is an essential body of knowledge that all children should know. This knowledge
is not confined in subjects but the subjects taught should bring about an
awareness of this knowledge in children. When they acquire this knowledge,
they are able to reflect upon themselves, improve their attitudes positively and
apply this knowledge to solve real life problems.

We may ask, “What then is this knowledge?” Let us now focus on Professor
Paul Hirst’s ideas. He categorized this knowledge into what he termed,
‘forms of knowledge’, which he proposed to be the fundamental body of
knowledge. This should form the basis of a common core curriculum.

Paul Hirst comes up with the following seven forms of knowledge:

œ Mathematics

œ Physical Sciences

œ History and the Human Sciences

œ Morals

œ Religion

œ Philosophy

œ Literature and Fine Arts.

According to Paul Hirst (1980:96) this is the body of knowledge that should
be included in the common core curriculum. If we analyse these forms of
knowledge we can easily detect the subjects that we teach under each form
of knowledge. This basic knowledge is taught from pre-school right through
secondary education.

3.3.2 Community-Centred Learning

We also want to acknowledge the contribution made by Lawton (1973). He
holds the view that knowledge should be selected from culture. In other
words he argues that what is to be taught should be determined by society.
Therefore, the curriculum should be based on philosophical and sociological
considerations. He suggests a community-based curriculum as illustrated
below:
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Zimbabwe Open University 25
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

Philosophical Sociological

Considerations Considerations

Selection from culture

1. Mathematics

2. Science

3. Humanities

4. Expressive arts

5. Moral education

Lawton (1973:46)

Fig. 3.1:

Lawton shows that what we teach should be relevant to the needs and
aspirations of a given society. What children learn should contribute to
serving their society and should therefore be culture bound. It is interesting
though, that Lawton agrees to a great extent with Hirst’s forms of knowledge.
He also comes up with a body of knowledge that should be taught to all
children.

3.3.3 Characteristics of Community-Centred Learning

Community centred learning has its own merits and demerits as illustrated
below:
œ Children are different and they cannot reach the same level of mastery.
This pattern of curriculum organization does not cater for individual
differences.

œ Children are not allowed to opt out of a subject through lack of mastery
or lack of interest. They can only do so when a basic minimum of
understanding is reached. However, if a child is less able in a subject,
alternative methods are applied until he/she performs better.
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26 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 3 Curriculum Organization

œ This type of curriculum organization offers a general type of education

to all children right through the secondary stage.
In Zimbabwe primary schools, the common core curriculum is offered which
includes Mathematics, English, Vernacular subjects and General Paper. These
are compulsory subjects. However, optional non-examinable courses may
be included depending upon the type of school and the interests and abilities
of the learners.

3.3.4 Subject-Centred Curriculum

We have established that the subjects we teach are structured from forms of
knowledge. Each subject is created to follow a different logical structure.
Kelly (1982) comes up with main aspects of these logical differences in subjects
as follows:
œ Each form has certain central concepts that are peculiar in character to
the form forexample,
- Science deals with gravity, acceleration, hydrogen photosynthesis
- Mathematics deals with number, matrix, integral
- Morals deal with God, sin, good, wrong
These concepts are sometimes used in other forms of knowledge but in a
rational structure, they fall into one particular form.
œ Each form has its own distinctive logical structure which consists of
networks and relationships and these are distinct from others.

œ Each form has its own distinctive truth criteria. It has its own method of
validating the concepts in its domain. Mathematics validation is different
from that or religion.

œ Each form has its own distinctive methodology, techniques and skills
for exploring experiences. Each form, therefore, represents a different
set of procedures to allow acquisition of knowledge and experiences in
the particular area.
These four logical differences are the basis of the subject centred curriculum.
The argument being that the central concepts in subjects are different and
cannot be integrated to form a core body of knowledge. As such, these have
to be taught separately.

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Zimbabwe Open University 27
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

3.3.5 Characteristics of Subject-Centred Curriculum

When implementing a subject-centred curriculum, the following advantages
and disadvantages should be taken into account:
œ The structure and key concepts of a subject economize the working of
the mind. Memory is less taxed because facts are grouped around
some common principle.
œ Observation is assisted because we know what to look for and from
where.
œ Reasoning is directed on a path along which ideas are laid out instead
of hopping from one aspect to another.
œ Subjects offered must be relevant to children’s needs and interests
œ The Subject matter (content) must relate to children’s experiences and
to real life situations.
Wheeler (1983) defends the subject centred curriculum because the sharply
defined subject divisions emphasize understanding key concepts and the
structure of the relationships within which they are organized.

In Zimbabwe, especially in secondary schools, subject centred curriculum is

prevalent. The subject Home Economics, is taught in secondary schools
separately as Food and Nutrition and Fashion and Fabrics. Each of these is
offered independently of the other. This is a clear demonstration of a subject-
centred curriculum.

3.3.6 Integrated Curriculum

Subject integration is the grouping together of subjects similar in content
(Bishop 1985). It is the opposite of a subject centred curriculum. It is the
breaking down of barriers between subjects which have similar content to
form broad fields of knowledge which are general in nature. Subjects like
General Science or Integrated Science have many subjects integrated together
to form one subject. General Science includes such subjects like Physics,
Chemistry and Biology. Social Studies also is composed of such subjects like
History, Geography and Health Science.

The intention of subject integration is not to fuse content into one complete
‘whole’ but simply to ensure that the content of the subjects should be related.
It does not mean fitting together bits and pieces from different subjects. It
means making use of the unique contribution of the individual subjects to a
whole body of knowledge. We now discuss three ways in which subject
integration is done:
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28 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 3 Curriculum Organization

œ Correlation of Subjects
This method establishes cross-links between different subjects. For
example, Geography and Agriculture. Teaching soil erosion in
Geography should not be isolated but should be extended to show its
relationship with the discipline of Agriculture.

œ Integration through Themes, Topics and Concepts

This method of subject integration presents integrated content of subjects
through topic themes or concepts. Bishop (1985) illustrates this by
making an observation of the primary school curriculum in Sri Lanka.
He lists eleven themes that make up the curriculum as follows:
1. Our house and the people who live in it
2. Things we eat and drink
3. Things we wear
4. Things we use for work
5. How we live in communities
6. The world around us
7. Our school and its neighbourhood
8. People who help us
9. How we travel and communicate
10. Our earth and the sky above it
11. Things we see and hear.
If we analyse these themes we can extract the different subjects that make up
one theme. Let us analyse number two.

The things we eat and drink

Subjects that are integrated to form this theme may include:

Agriculture

Geography

History

Food and Nutrition

Chemistry

Biology

Commerce
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Zimbabwe Open University 29
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

As highlighted earlier, integration does not mean fusing content into ‘one whole’
but merely that the content of one subject should be related to that of another
subject.

3.3.7 The Centre or Interest Method

This method uses a point of interest which has to be learnt by children. The
idea is to establish a focal point and then set themes or subjects that can deal
with this point of interest.

There was debate some time ago, here in Zimbabwe, on how to teach
Population Education to children. This was the point of interest. Which
subjects should contribute knowledge on population education? Let us illustrate
how this could be done through subject integration. The diagram below shows
which areas could be integrated

Mathematics
Sex education Health Science

English Population Local Languages

Education

History HIV AND AIDS Geography

As illustrated, the point of interest, Population Education involves concepts

from the various subject areas.

3.3.8 Characteristics of the Integrated Curriculum

œ This method calls for greater flexibility in school organization to include
flexibility in timetabling and in grouping learners.
œ It demands several roles for the teacher. The teacher should have
deep knowledge of a range of subjects and of their significant concepts.
œ Holt (1980:46) observes two contradictory contributions to knowledge
through the integrated curriculum, “On one hand, the integrated
approach makes things easier presumably by leaving out the difficult
bits. On the other hand, it is intellectually rather more demanding than
the usual separate subjects…” The two observations are indeed
applicable in an integrated curriculum. We need to guard against watering
down the curriculum.
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30 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 3 Curriculum Organization

Activity 3.1
? v Discuss the concept, ‘patterns of curriculum organization’.
Give examples where necessary.
v Choose a point of interest in the curriculum and show how
you would apply this concept of curriculum organization to
integrate the theme in the curriculum at your school.

3.3.9 Child-Centred Curriculum

John Dewey is an advocate for the child-centred curriculum. ‘Child-centred’
is a term of protest against rote learning that emphasised the ability to parrot
ideas when required to do so (Schofield 1982). Child centredness emphasises
that the child is more important than the subject matter. Instead of fitting the
child to the school curriculum, the curriculum should be adapted to the child
(Bishop 1985). Bishop (1985) argues that a subject has meaning only if it is
translated to the child’s own experiences and meets his/her growing needs.

Proponents of the child-centred curriculum advocate for education according

to nature in order to bring out the evolutionary character of nature in man.
Nature does not hurry but advances slowly and the same should apply to the
learning process. Children should be allowed to learn at their own pace.
Darling (1994) echoes this idea. He calls for a curriculum that is designed to
reflect the nature of the child. Children are intellectually curious, keen to find
things out and are actively engaged in making sense of the world they live in.
Nature is perceived as having three meanings:
œ natural religion
œ natural order of things
œ natural law.
The curriculum, therefore, should enable the child to develop according to the
laws of his own nature and must enable the child to grow mentally and physically
which is another factor that determines child-centredness. Curriculum is the
source of true knowledge. Advocates of the child-centred curriculum believe
that true knowledge is acquired through seeing, touching, smelling, hearing
and tasting. It follows then that the curriculum should be designed to enable
children to use all their senses to establish the truth. This then becomes
worthwhile knowledge.

We have noted that the child-centred curriculum should take into account the
interests of the child. There are certain concepts and aspects that children
need to learn irrespective of whether they are interesting or not. Children
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Zimbabwe Open University 31
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

need to learn about culture, rules and regulations of various aspects. Subjects
like Reading and Mathematics have to be learnt by every child.

This brings us to the crucial realization that the child-centred curriculum is

more about how children learn than what children learn. It puts more stress
on methods of instruction rather than on the subject matter. Bishop (1985:92)
clarifies this point. He says that methods should stimulate and motivate pupils
to learn. “The teacher must not opt for what is merely interesting but must
judge what is valuable and then, by method, make it interesting and tempting”.
The importance of children’s interest lies in the sphere of the method rather
than the content.

Emphasising the child-centred instructional methodology, Ramiszowiski (1999)

says that the role of the teacher is that of collaborator, team leader and guide
rather than boss. Class work is characterised by children’s actions through
peer teaching, small groups and teamwork.

There should be connections between classroom work and surrounding

communities. The teacher’s role is to design real life like projects for learners
which are geared to finding solutions in real life settings. While there are
systems in which all the planned instruction takes place, that is, in groups and
discussion, we need to realize that most of the actual learning takes place
through direct teacher/learner contact.

We need to stress that curriculum organization in the child centred curriculum

is really the organization of instruction. The most important aspect is to include
the natural environment and experimental activities. We must take note of the
primary school education should be indeed the heart of child-centred
curriculum.

3.3.10 Characteristics of the Child-Centred Curriculum

œ Educationists have observed a deficiency in child centred methods.
The methods do not assist children to acquire skills in subjects like
Reading and Mathematics as these are mastered through a systematic
process
œ Child-centred instruction has led to the fall in standards in reading, writing
and numeracy.
œ Different children have different needs and interests and even the bright
children. The child-centred curriculum should be seen to address these
needs.
œ In developing countries, culture encourages conformity, authority,
discipline and group reliance. The child centred curriculum may be
against these values and beliefs and may be difficult to implement.
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32 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 3 Curriculum Organization

In our Zimbabwean context, such child-centred methods as group work and

dramas have been adopted. However, the teacher still dominates the teaching/
learning environment. This is due to shortage of facilities, instructional materials
and funds.

Activity 3.3
? v Give an account of how you are incorporating child centred
methods in teaching/learning in your class.
v Describe the method of curriculum organization your school
is implementing.

3.4 Summary
This unit has introduced you to methods of curriculum organization. We have
discussed what subjects are, how they are chosen and offered in the curriculum.
The following points were noted:
œ The Common Core Curriculum stipulates the subjects to be done by
all pupils in the schools.
œ Community-centred learning includes learning experiences derived from
society what the society expects its children to learn.
œ The subject-centred curriculum is designed on the basis of specific
subjects.
œ The integrated curriculum entails fusion of topics, themes and concepts
from different subjects into one subject.
œ The learner-centred curriculum deals more with methods of instruction
which puts the child at the centre of learning.

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Zimbabwe Open University 33
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

3.5 References
Bishop, G. (1985). Curriculum Development. A Textbook for Students.
London: Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
Darling, J. (1994). Child Centred Education and its Critics. London:
Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd.
Holt, M. (1980). Schools and Curriculum Change. London: McGraw-
Hill Book Company. Ltd.
Kelly, A.V. (1982). The Curriculum Theory and Practice. London: Harper
and Row Ltd.
Lawton, D. (1973). Social Change, Educational Theory and Curriculum
Planning. London: Hodder and Stroughton.
Romiszowiski, A.J. (1999). Designing Instructional Systems. Decision
Making in Course Planning and Curriculum Design. London: Kogan
Page Ltd.
Schofield, H. (1982). The Philosophy of Education: An Introduction.
London: George and Allen and Unwin.
Wheeler, D.K. (1983). The Curriculum Process. London: Hodder and
Stroughton.

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34 Zimbabwe Open University
 4
Unit F our
Four

Models of Curriculum Development

4.0 Introduction

I n the previous unit, we discussed curriculum planning, designing and

development. We also looked at stages in curriculum development,
curriculum development and challenges in curriculum development in
Zimbabwe. Solutions to these challenges were also suggested.

In this unit, we identify models of curriculum planning and development. We

begin by defining the term model and then describe four curriculum
development models. These are Tyler’s, Wheeler’s, Kerr’s and Lawton’s
models. These models have been singled out because they provide us with
some guidelines for curriculum development. The importance of aims, goals,
objectives and evaluation is emphasised in all their writings. Further, we also
focus on the applicability of these models to curriculum planning and
development in the Zimbabwean education system
Curriculum Development in Primary School ModuleDEP104

4.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of the unit you should be able to:

v define the term, model;

v describe the features of Tyler’s, Wheeler’s, Kerr’s, Lawton’s
models and Stenhouse’s process model of curriculum
development;
v examine the strengths and weaknesses of each of the five
models discussed in this unit;
v assess the applicability of each of the five models in curriculum
development in Zimbabwe.

4.2 Definition of the term, ‘Model’

According to Oliver (1992), models are patterns serving as guidelines to action
which can be focused for every form of educational activity such as models of
instruction, evaluation, supervision and administration.

Tanner and Tanner (1975:23) define a model as, “a plan or a series of events
and it can be a tried or untried scheme”. It might also be a proposed solution
to a piece of a problem or an attempt at a solution to a specific problem.
Hence, different models have been devised for solving educational challenges
or establishing procedures. In this unit, we shall discuss Tyler’s, Kerr’s,
Wheeler’s, Lawton and Stenhouse’s process models of curriculum
development.

Kerr and Wheeler’s models are cyclic in nature. They permit planners to
enter at various points of the model, reverse the order or work on two or
more components simultaneously (Sayler et. al 1981).

Activity 4.1
? v
v
Define the term, “model”.
Discuss the difference between the inductive and cyclic
models of curriculum planning and development.

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38 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 4 Models of Curriculum Development

4.3 Models of Curriculum Development

In unit Three, we discussed the meaning of curriculum development as, “the
process for making programmatic decisions and for revisiting the products of
those decisions on the basis of continuous and subsequent evaluation”. (Urevbu
1985:22)

Models give order to the curriculum development process Taba (1962:11),

states that:

“If one conceives of curriculum development as a task requiring orderly thinking,

one needs to examine both the order in which decisions are made and the ways in
which they are made to make sure that all relevant considerations are brought to bear
on these decisions”.

In this section, we discuss the four models of curriculum development starting

with Tyler’s (1949) objectives model.

4.3.1 Ralph Tyler’s Objectives Model

Tyler’s model has a deductive approach as it leads from generalization
(analysed needs) to the particular (goals and objectives). Urevbu (1985)
pointed out that Tyler’s model is the dominant framework which has influenced
curriculum planning and development since 1949. It has been interpreted by
most educators as a procedure to follow when planning a curriculum, as it
claims to provide an answer to the procedural question, “What steps does
one follow in planning a curriculum?”

Tyler (1949) suggests four fundamental questions which need answers if the
process of curriculum planning is to succeed. These questions are:
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
(Objectives)
2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain
these purposes? (Selection of learning experiences).
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
(Evaluation)

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Zimbabwe Open University 39
Curriculum Development in Primary School ModuleDEP104

Step 1: Objective

Sources

1. The learner
2. Contemporary life
3. Subject specialists
......................................Philosophical and psychological screen

Step 2 : Selection of learning experiences

Step 3: Organization of learning experiences

Step 4: Evaluation

The Tyler model is an elaboration of these four steps. The first step is the
crucial step in this model since all the others proceed from and wait upon one
statement of objectives. These objectives are derived from systematic studies
of learners, contemporary life in society and from analysis of the subject matter
specialists. The three sources of objectives are then screened through the
school’s philosophy and knowledge about the psychology of learning.

According to Carl (1995), once the crucial step of stating objectives is

accomplished, the model proceeds through the stages of selecting and
organizing of learning experiences as a means of achieving the ends and finally
evaluating in terms of those ends. The process of evaluation according to
Tyler (1949) is a process of determining the extent to which the education
objectives are actually being realized by the programme of curriculum and
instruction. Therefore, the statement of objectives serves as the basis of
selecting learning experiences and the standard against which the programme
is measured. Tyler (1949) believes that evaluation is a process by which
initial expectations in the form of behavioural objectives are matched with
learning outcomes. Urevbu (1985) comments that such a conception seems
a wise and practical way to appraise the success of a venture.

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40 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 4 Models of Curriculum Development

However, some educationists such as Carl (1995) and Bishop (1985) argue
that Tyler’s model is too simple and that evaluation needs not be a terminal
process but should take place at every stage. The model is too prescriptive
in that it suggests what ought to be done and roles played by each curriculum
developer. It’s a linear model of curriculum planning and development. This
is the essence of the Wheeler’s model. He has converted Tyler’s original
ideas into cyclic form.

4.3.2 Wheeler’s Model

Selection of
Aims, goals learning
and objectives Selection of
content

Evaluation
Organisation and
Integration of
Learning experiences

Fig. 4.1: Wheeler's Model

The first step of Wheeler’s model is a statement of aims, goals and objectives.
Wheeler (1976) gives a breakdown of procedures which might be followed
in breaking down aims and goals into behavioural objectives as follows.
1. The general aims we have in a school have to be analysed into a set of
ultimate goals. These are to be written or discussed as behaviours
which illustrate the general aims and thus refer to the end product of
schooling.
2. Each ultimate goal is then broken down into mediate goals. These are
applicable at different stages of learning, the principle being that mediate
goals add up to the ultimate goal when taken together. These goals are
achieved after a long period of time. For examples, aims.
3. From each mediate goal, we can derive proximate goals which can be
achieved over a short period of time. The proximate goals are like the
goals we write in a scheme of work.
4. From each proximate goal, we can derive the specific classroom
objectives which are achieved immediately after a lesson has been taught.
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Zimbabwe Open University 41
Curriculum Development in Primary School ModuleDEP104

Wheeler requires us to work through a system of different levels of aims from

the general to the specific in planning our curriculum. He goes on to differentiate
between content and learning experiences, the first step in Wheeler’s model
on which all else focuses is the statement of aims, goals and objectives.

According to Posner (1995) and Bishop (1985), Wheeler’s model is similar

to Tyler’s model in that the initial set of aims, goals and objectives are taken
for granted or regarded as given. Both models look like a closed system, a
statement which assumes that major considerations are all included in the
models. However, Wheeler’s model is different from Tyler’s in that evaluation
is an ongoing process at every stage of the model unlike in Tyler’s model
where evaluation is terminal.

4.3.3 Lawton’s Model

Lawton provided a five stage flow-chart on curriculum planning and
development.

(Lawton 1976:223)

Stage 1 Stage 2
Philosophical Questions Sociological questions
(Cultural universals) e.g. aims (Cultural variables) e.g. the kind
of education, worthwhile of society we have/we want
knowledge.

Stage 3

Selection from culture

Stage 4
Psychological
Questions and Theories
Stage 5 e.g. of learning,
instruction, development,
Curriculum organized in etc.
stages, sequences

(Urevbu 1985:24)
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42 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 4 Models of Curriculum Development

Lawton’s model deals with the need to achieve clarity about aims of education,
and questions about knowledge and values which should be the focus of
education irregardless of the kind of society. These philosophical ideas do not
operate in a vacuum but lead to the second stage - that of improving the
society. According to Lawton in Kelly (1977), there are two sociological
questions about the curriculum. These are:
œ To what extent is the content of the curriculum lagging behind the needs
of individuals living in a society which has undergone and is still
undergoing rapid social change?

œ To what extent is the distribution of knowledge in society compatible

with the kind of society we now have or would wish to have, and how
is this reflected in the curriculum organized?
Lawton (1976) asserts that the first of these questions might be answered in
terms of the kinds of knowledge and skills currently lacking or
underemphasized. The second question raises controversial issues about the
kind of society we are or are not. However, in Lawton’s view, education is to
be used to improve the quality of life of the society.

Stage three is reached once philosophical and sociological questions have

been asked and answered. Kelly (1977) pointed out that the society now
needs to identify elements in its own culture and include these for further study
at different levels of the education system. Beliefs, skills, literature knowledge,
arts, folklore, ceremonies and pattern of behaviour all need to be identified,
examined, developed and preserved. Curriculum planners need also to
appreciate what is universal in the foreign culture and scrutinize areas which
are worth borrowing and adopting. The question of relevance is a key issue
in this area (Doll 1978).

Stage four focuses on psychological considerations. There is need to refer to

theories of learning, personality development and how children learn. Lawton
focuses on the contributions of psychologists such as Bruner, Piaget, Freud,
cognitivist and behaviourist theories of learning and other theorists. He believes
these theories help the curriculum planner in the selection of content, learning
experiences, methods of teaching and assessment procedures.

In stage five, Lawton suggests that we assess how curriculum is organized in

stages and sequences. In this context the curriculum planner also needs to
consider individual differences in children (slow/fast learners) and how these
can be catered for in the curriculum.

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Zimbabwe Open University 43
Curriculum Development in Primary School ModuleDEP104

Urevbu (1985) concludes that Lawton’s ideas are based in the rapidly growing
literature on the specific connections between curriculum form and content
and the larger society. In contrast, the models of Tyler, Wheeler and Kerr
reflect the behavioural approach to curriculum planning and development and
utilize taxonomies that emphasize the cognitive, affective and psychomotor
behaviour and general technical rationality in curriculum planning.

Activities 4.2

? v Describe the features of Tyler and Wheeler’s models of

curriculum planning and development.
v Among the four models discussed in this unit, which one is
applicable to the Zimbabwean education system? Justify your
answer.
v Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of Kerr’s model of
curriculum planning and development.
v Describe Lawton’s five-stage model of curriculum
development. Why should we consider psychological
questions in curriculum planning and development?
v Compare and contrast the objectives and the process models
of curriculum development.

4.3.4 Process Model

According to Stenhouse (1975), the process model is a strategy of curriculum
planning which attempts to arrive at a useful specification of the curriculum
and the educational process without starting by pre-specifying the anticipated
outcomes of that process in the form of objectives. The model is based on
Peters in Stenhouse (1975) who points out that education should focus on
transmitting what is worthwhile to the learners. In other words, educational
activities are worthwhile in themselves rather than as a means to an end.

The process model emphasizes the process not the end product. Learners
must be able to experiment, demonstrate and hypothesise. It focuses on how
to learn rather than what to learn. The focus of learning is on exposure and
involvement rather than the level of mastery. Therefore, curriculum aims to
explore worthwhile educational activities or processes. On the whole, the
model is based on the assumption that the process is more important than
what the curriculum intends to achieve. Selection should therefore be based
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44 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 4 Models of Curriculum Development

on disciplines of knowledge already known. Stenhouse (1975) says that

procedures, concepts, criteria and content structure determine methodology.
Hence, the process model pursues understanding rather than grades.

Advantages of the Process Model

œ It addresses the disciplines of knowledge.
œ It does not trivialise knowledge and human nature to a series of
observable behaviours.
œ It is more appropriate to areas of knowledge and understanding.
œ Examinations are not important in the students’ learning.

Disadvantages
œ It demands a deeper understanding of the philosophies of knowledge
on the part of the planners and the teacher.
œ It is difficult to rest in an examination based education system since it
focuses more on how to learn rather than the learning outcomes.

4.4 Summary
In this unit we defined the term “model” and discussed the features of Tyler’s,
Wheeler’s, Kerr’s, Lawton’s and Stenhouse’s models of curriculum
development. We also identified the strengths and weaknesses of each model,
and discussed similarities and differences. We discovered that the objectives
model is linear in nature and emphasizes examinations (end product) whereas
the process model focuses more on learning how to learn and understanding
different forms of knowledge. The next unit discusses curriculum implementation.

Activity 4.3
? v Examine the relevance of Lawton’s model in curriculum
planning and development.
v Discuss challenges you would meet in implementing Tyler’s
model in curriculum development in Zimbabwe. Suggest
solutions.
v Explain the differences and similarities between the linear and
cyclic models of curriculum planning and development.
v “In Curriculum planning and development, evaluation should
take place at every stage.” Justify this assertion.

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Zimbabwe Open University 45
Curriculum Development in Primary School ModuleDEP104

4.5 References
Bishop, A. (1985). Curriculum Development: A Textbook for Students.
Macmillan London.

Carl, A.E. (1995). Teacher Empowerment Through Curriculum

Development

Doll, R.C .(1978). Curriculum Improvement, Decision Making and

Process. Allyn and Bacon Boston.

Kerry, A.V. (1977). The Curriculum: Theory and Practice. Harper and
Row
London.

Lawton, D. (1973). Social Change, Educational Theory and Curriculum

Planning. Hodder and Stoughton. London.

Saylor, J.G., Alexander W.M .& Lewis A.J. (1981). Curriculum Planning
for Better Teaching and Learning. [Link] New York.

Stenhouse, L. (1975). An Introduction to Curriculum Research and

Development – Heinemann, London .

Taba H. (1962). Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice.

Harcourt, Bracer World. New York.

Tanner, D. & Tanner, L. (1975). Curriculum Development: Theory into

Practice. Macmillan. New York.
Tyler R.W. (1949). Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction.
University of Chicago. Chicago.

Urevbu A.O. (1985). Curriculum Studies. Longman. Lagos

Wheeler D.K. (1976). Curriculum Process. Hodder and Stoughton.

London.

Recommended References
Lawton, D. (1973). Social Change, Educational Theory and Curriculum
Planning. Hodder and Stoughton. London.

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46 Zimbabwe Open University
 5
Unit F ive
Five

Curriculum Implementation

5.0 Introduction

I n the preceeding units we discussed what curriculum development means.

We also examined models of curriculum development such as Tyler,
Wheeler, Kerr and Lawton’s models. Now that we have established a
common understanding of curriculum development, we can focus on curriculum
implementation.

5.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of the unit you should be able to:

v explain curriculum implementation

v identify the role of the teacher and school head in curriculum
implementation
v examine factors for successful curriculum implementation and
suggest solutions.
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

5.2 Curriculum Implementation

In the first unit , we defined ‘curriculum’ as the planned and unplanned
learning activities experienced by learners in the school system. Curriculum
implementation refers the actual curriculum into use, practice or operation
through which the learner is enabled to acquire both planned or unplanned
experiences that enable her/him to survive in her/his particular society
(Stenhouse 1979). Implementation, therefore, refers to the stage of the actual
use or application of the curriculum.

Stenhouse’s (1979's) definition leaves much room for the teacher to use his/
her creativity and imagination in carrying out the educational proposals.
Stenhouse (1979:4) advises that there is need for adaptation of the curriculum
to suit the realistic process by pointing out that, “a curriculum is rather like a
recipe in cookery … within limits, a recipe can be modified and varied
according to tastes, so can curriculum”.

We can conclude that the manner in which the teacher selects and mixes the
various ingredients contained in the curriculum document is the actual
implementation of the curriculum. In order for the curriculum to be put into
practice, the teacher uses the ‘syllabus’ while the curriculum provides an overall
plan handed down from central control (in our case, The Ministry of
Education, Sport and Culture through the Curriculum Development Unit).
The syllabus is a school subject plan providing guidance to the teachers on
each particular subject in the curriculum.

The syllabus according to Carl (1995), refers to the breaking down of the
curriculum proposal into manageable units or topics to be covered over a
period of time. For example, the Social Studies syllabus covers the seven
years of primary education. In our schools, we have three forms of curriculum
stated as follows:
œ The National Plan from the government (in this case, Ministry of
Education, Sport and Culture)
œ The Subject Syllabus from CDU
œ The Subject Syllabus made by the classroom teacher as s/he interprets
the National Plan from the government and the subject syllabus from
CDU (through scheming, planning, actual teaching and learning process
and evaluations).

In other words, when the teacher constructs the syllabus, his/her personality,
teaching materials and the whole teaching learning environment interact with
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48 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 5 Curriculum Implementation

the learner, then curriculum implementation has taken place. The success or
failure of that implementation is evaluated through examinations and tests.

Fig. 5.3: The Process of Curriculum Planning and Development

(1) (2) (3)

School Syllabus and

National schemes made by
Curriculum Policy Subject Syllabi teachers.
from Central from CDU
Government • Materials
• School
environment
• Teacher’s
personality
• Head’s
administrative style
• learners

(Adapted from Gatawa, 1999)

Schubert (1986:42) says curriculum implementation is traditionally seen as

the delivery process. Carl (1995:45) defines curriculum implementation as
that phase during which the relevant design is applied in practice.

The teacher as the major implementer of the curriculum, has the mandate to
interpret it according to how s/he understands the curriculum. As a result of
this autonomy s/he the same curriculum can be implemented differently
depending on the expertise of the teacher, the context in which s/he operates
and the nature of the pupils under his/her care. It is, therefore, pertinent that
we discuss some of the factors which might influence curriculum implementation
positively and negatively. We also identify possible solutions.

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Zimbabwe Open University 49
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

Activity 5.1

? v
v
What is curriculum implementation?
Give reasons why you think the same curriculum can be
implemented differently by teachers with the same
qualifications?

5.3 Factors that Promote Effective Curriculum

Implementation
Effective curriculum implementation is enhanced by a variety of factors some
of which are:
œ An ongoing interaction between curriculum designers and the
implementers. Implementers such as teachers need constant advice
and help from the designers. This interaction and consultation encourages
mutual understanding and conceptualization of the curriculum by both
the designers and the user system.

œ Clear communication to illustrate roles, explain terminology and to supply

answers which implementers might not have. Multiway communication
channels are ideal if the implementation is going to succeed. (Top-
down, down-up and horizontal channels) (Carl 1995).

œ Provision of support services such as a climate where trust and security

exists encourages teachers to implement the curriculum effectively. The
process begun in curriculum development should be continued during
this stage. This includes:-
- dissemination of information and in-servicing of the user system through
seminars and workshops
- creation and maintenance of a conducive working climate
- ongoing supervision and monitoring of progress (evaluation should be
an ongoing process). This enables both designers and implementers to
make necessary logistical adjustments and it also motivates the
implementers.
- provision of relevant resources such as material, financial and time and
- networking with various stakeholders (Gatawa, 1999).

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50 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 5 Curriculum Implementation

Activity 5.2

? v Explain how the creation and maintenance of a conducive

working climate enhance effective curriculum implementation.
v Suggest networking strategies you could use to inform various
stakeholders.

5.4 Challenges to Curriculum Implementation

v Teachers
We noted earlier on that teachers are the key curriculum implementers.
They are the ones who translate the curriculum and the syllabus into
meaningful learning units depending on their knowledge base. Tanner
and Tanner (1975) see curriculum as that which teachers and pupils
create together. Curriculum is not something that others develop and
force upon teachers. However, in Zimbabwe, the curriculum is given
to teachers. This, therefore, means that teachers need to understand
the given plan or proposed document.

Our teachers in Zimbabwe have different qualifications depending on

when and where they trained. Qualifications range from PTL (after
Standard Six) to degree level. The way these teachers interpret the
syllabus differs as a result. Besides teacher qualifications and expertise,
interest and commitment to duty also affects how the curriculum is
implemented. Some teachers although qualified, might be too lazy to
implement the curriculum effectively. Therefore, we can conclude that
the teachers’ expertise; interest and commitment to duty affect curriculum
implementation (Miller and Seller 1985).

v The learners
According to Posner (1995), the nature of the learner affects curriculum
implementation. The reality of curriculum implementation depends on
the interaction of learning materials and learning experiences provided
by the teacher. Good et al (1978) observed that different teachers,
teaching the same curriculum, present varied information and activities
to their pupils even if the time allocation is the same. This depends on
the age, ability level, interest and needs of the learners. Learners with
a negative attitude towards learning present a challenge to the curriculum
implementer. The teacher needs to be critical and make decisions about
what to teach and how to teach it depending on the nature of the
learner. Learners’ negative attitude affects effective curriculum
implementation.
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Zimbabwe Open University 51
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

v Resources
Resources in this context refer to materials and time. Materials need to
be available and adequate if teachers are to implement the curriculum
effectively. Materials like textbooks and teaching learning aids need to
be supplied in adequate quantities and on time. A conducive environment
has to be created in the form of basic facilities such as classrooms,
laboratories, workshops, libraries, sports fields and play centres. Tables
and chairs need to be of the right size and enough for the pupils.
Inadequate instructional materials affect the quality of instruction.

v Instructional Supervision
Bishop (1985) states that heads of schools provide means for curriculum
implementation through timetabling; classroom and textbook allocation;
syllabus; instructional material provision and creating a working school
climate for effective teaching and learning. The school heads monitor
and guide curriculum interpretation through ensuring that schemes of
work, lesson plans, teaching learning aids and records are prepared
regularly and appropriately. The head sets and maintains the school
tone. This means that heads of schools need to be good communicators,
intelligent, creative and capable of employing good leadership styles
so as to work with the teachers, pupils and the community effectively.
An incompetent school head undermines the effective curriculum
implementation. Lack of adequate supervision and guidance also
negatively impact on how the curriculum is implemented.

v Political and Socio-Economic Constraints

Hawes (1979) argues that schools are set up to serve particular political
and ideological orientations. Schools are part of a wider education
system which is part of a political, social and economic framework.
Hawes (1979:11) also goes on to content that there is no such thing as
non-political education, education is for citizens, citizens form a state.

In Zimbabwe, curriculum documents from central government through

The Curriculum Development Unit (CDU) are guided by politically
motivated decisions. There might be reluctance and distrust from the
implementers to accept and implement the policies. If the ideological
environment does not support values contained in the curriculum
proposal, effective and efficient implementation of the curriculum may
be hindered.

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52 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 5 Curriculum Implementation

v The Nature of Content

Gatawa (1999) concludes that the nature of the content may act as a
barrier to curriculum implementation. If the content is irrelevant, foreign
and unrelated to the needs and interests of the learners, then there will
be lack of motivation to learn. Bruner talks about the power of what is
taught to the pupils. Bruner says we need to consider the ‘worthiness’
or relevance of what we teach. We should teach what is meaningful
and useful in the lives of our learners. If the content is meaningless to
the learners, they may cease to concentrate and hence learning is not
likely to take place.

Activity 5.3

? v Critically examine how lack of resources and learners’ negative

attitudes to learning affect effective curriculum implementation.
v “The community can act as a barrier to curriculum
implementation”. Examine the validity of this assertion.
v Discuss how demands from external examination boards act
as barriers to curriculum implementation.

5.5 Solutions
Curriculum implementation can be improved if we adopt some of the following
suggestions:
œ Involvement of all stakeholders in curriculum design and development.
œ Depending on the availability of resources, on going workshops,
seminars and in-service programmes at regional, district and school
level should be held for the key personnel in the education system e.g.
Heads of Schools, Teachers in Charge, teachers as well as the parents/
caregivers.
œ Educate parents/caregivers on school policies and their role in the
education of their children.
œ Establish close liaison among the CDU, schools and interest groups.
œ Heads of Schools need to use effective and user friendly supervisory
practices.
œ School Heads should also consider teacher expertise when allocating
responsibilities/tasks to their subordinates.

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Zimbabwe Open University 53
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

Activity 5.5

? v How could you overcome the following barriers to curriculum

implementation:
- teacher incompetence
- nature of learners
- nature of content taught
- political and socio-economic constraints.
v “It has been noted that curriculum implementation is
directly related to the supervisory competencies of Heads of
Schools as well as to the strengths of the school based in-
service programme”. Discuss the validity of this statement.
Give educational implications.

5.6 Summary
In this, unit we defined curriculum implementation and discussed factors that
promote effective curriculum implementation. We also discussed barriers to
effective curriculum implementation. Few suggestions to overcome these
barriers were also given. The next unit discusses curriculum evaluation.

Activity 5.6

? 1. Discuss factors that enhance effective curriculum

implementation.
2. How do the interest groups and examination boards act as
barriers to curriculum implementation?
3. Explain five challenges to curriculum implementation. Suggest
solutions.

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54 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 5 Curriculum Implementation

5.7 References
Bishop, A. (1985). Curriculum Development: A Textbook for Students.
Macmillan. London.

Carl, A.E. (1995). Teacher Empowerment Through Curriculum

Development.
Juta. Cape Town.

Gatawa, B.S. M. (1999). The Politics of the Curriculum: An Introduction.

College Press. Harare.

Hawes, H. (1979). Curriculum and Reality in African Primary Schools.

Longman – London.

Kelly, A. (1977). Curriculum: Theory and Practice. Harper and Row.

London.

Posner, G.J. (1995). Analyzing the Curriculum. McGraw Hill. New York.

Stenhouse, L. (1975). An Introduction to Curriculum Research and

Development. Athenaeum. London.

Tanner, D. & Tanner, L. (1975). Curriculum Development: theory into

Practice.
Macmillan. New York.
Urevbu, A.O. (1985). Curriculum Studies. Longman Lagos.

Recommended Reading
Bishop, A. (1985). Curriculum Development. A Textbook for Students.
Macmillan. London.

Gatawa, B. S. M. (1999). The Politics of the Curriculum: An Introduction.

College Press. Harare.

Kelly, A. (1977). Curriculum: Theory and Practice. Harper and Row.

Tanner, D. & Tanner, L. (1975). Curriculum Development: Theory into

Practice. Macmillan. New York.

Urevbu, A.O. (1985). Curriculum Studies. Longman. Lagos.

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Zimbabwe Open University 55
 6Unit Six

Curriculum Evaluation

6.0 Introduction

I n this unit, we focus on curriculum evaluation. We have spelt out how to

plan, design, develop, organise and implement the curriculum in the
Zimbabwean context in units two, three, four and five. Your task now is to
study and understand the curriculum evaluation with special emphasis on:
œ the meaning of curriculum evaluation
œ roles and purpose of evaluation
œ personnel for evaluation
œ roles of curriculum evaluators
œ foci of evaluation.
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

6.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

v define the term curriculum evaluation

v identify roles and purposes of evaluation
v justify roles and characteristics of evaluations
v discuss the foci of evaluation.

6.2 Definition of Terms

Foci – Purpose

Formative – Revealing information, relating to formation, development and

shaping.

Summative – Evaluation that comes at the end of a programme.

Evaluation
Gatawa (1999:51) defines evaluation as a process of describing and judging
an educational programme. It involves the collection of descriptive and
judgemental data from audiences. Worthen And Sanders (1987:19) describe
evaluation as the determination of the worth of a thing it includes obtaining
information for use in judging the worth of a program, product, procedure
House in Lawton (1980:110) believes that evaluation is the process of
applying a set of standards to a program, making judgements, using standards
and justifying the standards and their application.

The three definitions assert that evaluation:

œ describes an educational programme
œ judges or determines the worth of a programme
œ is concerned with obtaining information about programmes and making
judgements about programmes using acceptable standards.
Examples
1. It is through curriculum evaluation that pupils no longer write Z.J.C.
examinations.

2. It is through curriculum evaluation that vocational technical subjects are

now part of the core curriculum.
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58 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 6 Curriculum Evaluation

We want you to note that curriculum evaluation helps to consolidate

the inclusion of a programme or subject in the curriculum. It may also
cause elimination of a programme (subject from the curriculum). Let
us now focus on the pivotal role or purpose of evaluation).

6.3 Role and Purpose of Evaluation

We have observed from the above discussion that curriculum evaluation is an
integral part of curriculum development. We recognise its role and purpose
through the beneficiaries of evaluation. Firstly, school children benefit from
evaluation since it focuses on the effect of curriculum (Gatawa, 1990:52).
Curriculum designers also benefit. It is the only way through which they can
improve on the effectiveness of the programme. Teachers also benefit since
evaluation exposes the effects and demands the curriculum has on them.

Government also benefits because it pays the education bill. Evaluation checks
on the effectiveness of the curriculum in promoting the ideology of the country.

Evaluation also ensures that all projects/programmes are worthwhile salt.

Evaluation exposes strengths and weaknesses of projects/programmes to

parents, industry and commerce and to the needs of the country. Evaluation
calls for financial and educational accountability.

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Zimbabwe Open University 59
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

We now illustrate these roles in a diagrammatic way.

Fig. 6.1 Roles and Purposes of Evaluation

Government Better Educational Financial

Ideology Programmes Accountability

Stakeholders Evaluation
and Parents
Satisfaction

Needs of the Worthy Teachers’

country programmes and Demands
projects

6.4 Personnel for Evaluation

We identified beneficiaries of curriculum evaluation. Who then carries out the
evaluation? This sub-topic illustrates who the evaluators are, their role and
characteristics.
Curriculum evaluators may include:
œ curriculum planners
œ professional evaluators
œ education officers
œ teachers
œ pupils/students
œ parents
œ other stakeholders, for example, donors.

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60 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 6 Curriculum Evaluation

6.5 Roles of Curriculum Evaluators

6.5.1 Curriculum Planners
The curriculum planners gather, select, sort, balance and synthesize relevant
information from many sources in order to design those experiences that assist
learners to attain the goals of the curriculum, (Gatawa, 1990). Urevbu (1985)
also suggests that the curriculum planners operate at both macro and micro
levels to provide alternative strategies to be used by teachers.

6.5.2 Professional Evaluators

These must be professional in their own educational field. They should be
competent in research methods and should have knowledge on how to design
evaluation instruments. They should be able to communicate findings through
reports and to maintain an atmosphere conducive to successful evaluation
(Urevbu 1985). This means they must be able to accept criticism since their
role is that of an external evaluator.

6.5.3 Education Officers

Their chief role is to monitor quality of teaching and learning. They are a
source of information concerning the operations of the curriculum. Besides,
they have experience over a wide range of classrooms and can make
comparative evaluations. Their positions allow them to observe lessons from
a detached stand. They are trained evaluators and have a certain degree of
objectivity (Gatawa, 1999). To date however their role has been compromised
by economic hardships as they no longer go out frequently into the field to
observe lessons.

6.5.4 Teachers
Oliva (1997) observes that teachers are always evaluating curriculum and
must be familiar with evaluation techniques. They evaluate students’
performance on a daily basis through such activities as daily exercises, oral
interaction and tests. The teacher then makes judgement and decides on how
best to improve lesson delivery. Evidence of the teacher’s role as an evaluator
is reflected in the evaluation column of the scheme of work, lesson plan and
report writing where strengths, weaknesses and suggestions for improvement
are written (Oliva 1997).

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6.5.5 Pupils (Students)

The students are a source of information. Unlike teachers, students tend to
be unbiased about a project. The information they give is a mixture of reaction
and opinion from which the evaluator can tap for more information. Their
limitation is restricted experience and self-expression. Their evaluations can
be tapped from their poems, drama, debate and informal conversations.

6.5.6 Parents (Other Stakeholders)

Parents evaluate the school practices informally. Their views are echoed in
School Development Associations (SDA) and School Development
Committee meetings (SDC). Formally, they use suggestion boxes and they
also write petitions. The SDA/SDC have more access to information about
schools. They are in a better position to respond to questions about some
curriculum issues. SDA/SDC also evaluate financial, human and material
resources.

Activity 6.1

? 1. Why is curriculum evaluation important?

2. A teacher is an essential evaluator in curriculum issues. Discuss
your role as an evaluator.

6.6 Foci of Curriculum Evaluation

The thrust of evaluation centres on two questions, namely:
(a) To what extent are the objectives being achieved? The focus of this
question is formative evaluation.
(b) To what extent has each objective been achieved? The focus of this
question is summative evaluation.
We now discuss these two foci of evaluation.

6.6.1 Formative Evaluation

Formative evaluation centres on the work going on. The purpose of this
evaluation is to supply curriculum planners with information that is likely to
improve the programme in its experimental stage. (Gatawa, 1977) It is an
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62 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 6 Curriculum Evaluation

analytical process which extracts evidence of success or failure of a programme.

It reveals causes of success or failure and suggests solutions. It encourages
adoption of programmes that are likely to be successful and it eliminates
doubtful projects from reaching schools. Its strength is determined by the
extent to which the pilot schools are identical to the schools to which the
program is to be introduced.

6.6.2 Summative Evaluation

The focus of this evaluation centres on the work summary. It is like giving a
summary of all that has been done. It is applied when a programme is ready
for distribution to schools. The purpose is to ensure that the developmental
processes have been satisfied and that no further changes are necessary
(Gatawa, 1977). It assesses the practicability of a programme vis-à-vis claims
by the originators. It authorises the usefulness of programmes in schools.
Summative evaluation considers cost effectiveness in terms of financial, time
and humans resources. In addition, it also assesses in-service training demands.
It is indeed a terminal evaluation.

Activity 6.2
? v
v
Discuss formative evaluation and its advantages.
Examine the role of summative evaluation in the teaching and
learning situation.

6.7 Summary
In this unit, we have dwelt on the following issues:
œ Curriculum Evaluation is describing, judging, and determining the work
of an educational programme.
œ Role of Evaluation is to:-
(i) improve effectiveness of teaching and learning
(ii) expose the effects and demands the curriculum has on teachers
(iii) determine the worthiness of programmes
(iv) expose strengths and weaknesses of programmes
(v) call for accountability on both financial and educational activities
œ Personnel for evaluation include curriculum planners, academics,
education officers, teachers, students, parents and other stakeholders
œ Foci for evaluation is either formative or summative.
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Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

6.8 References
Gatawa, B.S. (1997) Politics of the School Curriculum: An Introduction.
Gweru: Mambo Press.

Golby, M. Greenwald, J & West R (1977) Curriculum Design. London:

University Press.

Jenkins, D.R. (1976) Curriculum Evaluation. London: Open University.

Press

Kelly, A.V. (1986) The Curriculum Theory and Practice. London: Harper
and Row Ltd.

Lawton, D. (1980). The Politics of the School Curriculum. London:

Routeledge and Kegan Paul.

Oliva, P. (1977). Developing the Curriculum. New York: Longman.

Popham, W.J. (1993). Educational Evaluations. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Popham, W.J. (1993). Educational Evaluations. Boston: Allyn and Bacon

Towney, D (ed)(1978). Curriculum Evaluations Today: Trends and

Implications. London: Macmillan Education.

Urevbu, A.O. (1983). Curriculum Studies. London: Longman.

Weiss, C (1998). Evaluation: Methods for Studying Programmes and

Policies. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Northen, B.R. & Sandeers, J.R. (1987). Educational Evaluation

Alternative Approaches and Practical Guidelines. London:
Longman.

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64 Zimbabwe Open University
 7
Unit Seven

Curriculum Change and Innovation

7.0 Introduction

I n the previous unit, we noted that evaluation is decision-oriented. Decisions

may lead to modifications or readjustments or introduction of new elements,
ideas and materials resulting in change and innovation. In this unit, we define
the terms, ‘change’ and ‘innovation’ and proceed to outline reasons for change
and innovation. We also describe the change process and the agents of change.
Two change strategies namely; the R, D and D and the Problem solver are
critically examined. We also discuss the challenges facing change and innovation
and finally suggest the way forward.
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

7.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

v distinguish the terms ‘change’ and ‘innovation’

v discuss the reasons for change and innovation
v outline the innovation/change process
v analyse the roles of various change agents
v examine the R, D and D and the Problem-solver
strategies of curriculum change and innovation
v explain various problems related to handling curriculum
change and innovation.

7.2 Definition of Curriculum Change and Innovation

7.2.1 Curriculum Change
The term ‘curriculum change’ refers to any improvement or any form of
restructuring of the curriculum. For example, the introduction of new content
such as HIV and AIDS, democracy and education, males studying Home
Economics and females studying carpentry, etc. Change may also refer to the
introduction of new teaching learning methodologies, for example, programmed
instruction, use of videos, games, etc. The concepts curriculum reform, renewal
and innovation are all aspects of curriculum change.

7.2.2 Curriculum Innovation

Curriculum innovation refers to practices which are new and different from
those which exist in the education system, for example, the introduction of
computers (Harris, 1978). Curriculum innovation is an intentional and deliberate
process to bring about desired effects whereas change may be intentional or
accidental. Examples of curriculum innovations in post-independent Zimbabwe
include among others, ZIMSCI, ZINTEC, Education with Production, HIV
and AIDS Education, VOC/TEC, Gender Equality, etc. The difference between
these two concepts are so narrow that often these terms are used
interchangeably.

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66 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 7 Curriculum Change and Innovation

Activity 7.1

? v
(a)
In your own words, explain the meaning of the following terms:
curriculum change
(b) curriculum innovation
v Explain the difference between curriculum change and
curriculum innovation.
v Critique any two innovation projects in education in post-
independent Zimbabwe.

7.3 Rationale for Curriculum Change and Innovation

Social, economic and technological changes in the wider society necessitate
re-adjusting educational programmes and practices in response to the broader
changes. For example, advancement in computer knowledge and usage
necessitated the introduction of Computer Education as a subject in schools.

The curriculum also changes to suit ideological changes in society (Hoyle,

1972). In the early years of post-independent Zimbabwe, with the introduction
of socialism as the guiding ideology, education shifted from the previous
colonial elitist education characterized by bottle-necks to mass education. In
addition, knowledge itself changes from one historical period to another.
Accordingly, the curriculum should change in response to the changing
circumstances in its environment. Obanya (1987) observes that a curriculum
which does not embody the process of continuous search for change is bound
to be irrelevant, out-moded and therefore of little use. The curriculum is always
searching for relevance and qualitative improvement.

Activity 7.2
? v Identify any two subjects introduced in the education system
in the post-independent Zimbabwe and explain the economic,
social, technological or political developments which
necessitated their introduction.
v State and explain any three reasons for curriculum change
and innovation.

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Zimbabwe Open University 67
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

7.4 Innovation Process

According to Bishop (1995) the process of innovation involves four major
factors stated as follows:

The Change Agent (who?) - the person or group that decides upon and
initiates the innovation, for example, the local
authority or the national government.

The Innovation (what)? - the change itself, for example, a new subject or
new method of teaching.

The User System (to whom)? - the person or group at which the innovation
is directed, for example, the teachers and
students.

Time - as a social process, innovation takes place

over a period of time.

Activity 7.3

? 1. State any two curriculum innovations in post-independent

Zimbabwe and in each case identify:
(i) the change agent (who?)
(ii) the innovation (what?)
(iii) the user system (to whom?).
2. Identify and explain the four factors of the innovation process.

7.5 Change Agents

The process of curriculum innovation/change involves the participation of many
different interest groups (stakeholders). These among others include the national
government, Curriculum Development Units (CDU), universities and colleges
of education, Education Officers, School Heads, teachers, students, parents
and donor agencies.

7.5.1 The Government

The government has the power to mobilize resources both human and material
from the national pool. In developing countries, it is the major change agent.
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68 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 7 Curriculum Change and Innovation

7.5.2 Curriculum Development Unit

It is an extension of the government and enjoys support (human and material
resources) needed for change to succeed.

7.5.3 Universities and Colleges of Education

These influence change in education through research and the discovery of
new ideas and methods. They also influence change through their pre-service
and in-service programmes to teachers.

7.5.4 Education Officers

They organise and supervise subject workshops with respect to both content
and methodology of teaching as well as school management. They also monitor
and evaluate school programmes through visits to schools.

7.5.5 School Heads

They interpret ministry policies and circulars to teachers, parents and students.
They organize staff development workshops at the school level and provide
the necessary moral support and back up services (financial and material
resources).

7.5.6 Teachers
The success of any innovation depends, to a large extent, on the teachers
(Bishop, 1985). The teachers interpret the objectives and content in the
curriculum plan and manage the learning situations into actual practice (Hawes,
1979). Teachers select content and match it with class levels.

7.5.7 Parents
Parents can call for the introduction of a new subject or sporting activity.
They may also initiate and fund infrastructural developments, for example,
construction of buildings, provision of transport facilities, and they may also
hire additional manpower to the recommended staff quota in order to cater
for a locally expanded curriculum.

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Zimbabwe Open University 69
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

Activity 7.4

? v
v
State the seven change agents discussed in this section.
Explain the role(s) played by each of the seven agents of
change in (1) above in the process of curriculum change/
innovation.

7.6 Change Strategies

A change/innovation strategy refers to all the available procedures and
techniques used by individuals and groups at different levels of the education
system to bring about change (Bishop, 1995). A change strategy may also be
called a change model (a widely applicable format of carrying out processes
of curriculum development). Examples of curriculum change strategies are
discussed below.

7.6.1 The Research, Development and Diffusion Model (R, D

and D)
An innovation/change is planned and developed by a national central planning
unit such as the Curriculum Development Unit and then fed into the user system
(Bishop, 1995). The R, D and D approach is a highly organized, systematic
and rational approach to innovation. It follows four logically sequenced
activities:
œ basic research by a central team which plans and develops the innovation
œ trials of the innovation in the field
œ planned mass dissemination or diffusion (movement of curriculum ideas/
materials from the centre to its ultimate users) through conferences,
workshops, courses, etc.
œ implementation (putting the ideas into practice) of the innovation by the
users.

A major characteristic of the R, D and D approach is a development agency

at the centre, for example, CDU, which produces packaged solutions, for
example, modules and teachers’ guides) for the users at the periphery (schools
and teachers). This strategy is also called the centre – periphery or top-down
approach (Bishop, 1995).

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70 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 7 Curriculum Change and Innovation

Advantages
The major strength of the R, D and D approach is that talented and experienced
teachers and experts are more likely to be found at the national centre of an
educational system. This expertise can then be used for the benefit of the
whole system. This approach also ensures that national priorities are given
adequate emphasis.

The R, D and D approach is effective where innovations are introduced on a

large scale, for example, at a national level and also where ideas have to
reach geographically dispersed and isolated users who will implement the
change, for example, teachers, who are often lacking in knowledge as is the
case in many developing countries. For this reason, the approach makes use
of an elaborate modular system in the form of elaborate teachers’ guides and
pupils’ guides. However, the approach has its own shortcomings.

Disadvantages
There is an initial high development cost. In addition, teachers who are expected
to implement the change are excluded from the planning stage so that the R, D
and D approach assumes a passive user system and users who are expected
to accept the innovation without question.

Activity 7.5

? v Describe the main characteristics of the R, D and D

model of curriculum change and innovation.
v Examine the advantages and disadvantages of using the
R, D and D model.
v In your opinion, is the R, D and D model a suitable
approach for curriculum change/innovation in the
Zimbabwean context? Why?

7.6.2 The Problem-Solver Model

Under the Problem-Solver model, the users themselves are involved in
initiating, planning and developing innovation/change at the local level (Bishop,
1995). The approach is essentially user centred. The user system might include
teachers, students, parents, the school, the local responsible authority, etc.
The role of the outsider becomes essentially consultative in providing ideas,
guidance and sometimes temporary inputs of aid. In the Problem – Solver
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Zimbabwe Open University 71
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

approach, the initiative for change comes from the periphery, the user system
so that grassroots innovations develop as a result of local initiatives. Local
initiative, local responsibility, collaboration, self-help and reliance on local
resources are the driving forces behind innovation/change. The Problem-Solver
model may be represented as follows:

Fig. 7.1: The Problem-Solver Model

Need

Diagnosis

Search for solutions

Select the best alternatives

Try out and evaluate the innovation

Implement the innovation

Bishop (1995:19)

Activity 7.6
?
v Outline the main characteristics of the Problem-Solver model.
v Explain the logical steps represented in Figure 7.1.
v Identify and explain any three innovations carried out by your
institution at a local level.

Advantages of the Problem-Solver Model

The approach offers schools and local authorities the means to improve their
organizational health and self-renewing capacities thereby helping to enhance
the creativity of schools. There is a higher commitment to the innovation/
change because the users have the ownership of the curriculum materials
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72 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 7 Curriculum Change and Innovation

(Bishop, 1995). The users are not necessarily different from the developers
so that this approach reduces the problem of implementation gaps, as might
be the case with the R, D and D model. However, this approach too has its
own shortcomings.

Disadvantages of the Problem-Solver Model

Limited local funding may reduce the quality and effectiveness of local
innovations. Limited expertise might also impact negatively on the quality of
local innovations. Local innovations tend to take up considerable amount of
the teachers’ time who might find curricula research over burdening to his or
her already existing load of routine teaching.

Activity 7.7

? v
(a)
State:
the advantages
(b) the disadvantages of the Problem – Solver Model.
v What are the problems which make it difficult to implement
the Problem-Solver Model at your institution?

7.7 Zimbabwean Experience

In Zimbabwe, curriculum change and innovation is done in close consultation
with a wide range of institutions including supervisors, practising teachers,
teacher trainers, university specialists, researchers, industry and commerce.
Representatives of these institutions constitute the National Subject Panel
(CDU Plan, 1985 – 1990). Members of these institutions consult their
respective constituencies and bring feedback to panel meetings. Time and
financial constraints may not allow the full participation of all these stakeholders,
so the participation of some of these groups may be minimal. The participation
of these institutions are co-ordinated by the Curriculum Development Unit
(CDU).

7.8 Challenges in Curriculum Change and Innovation

Several challenges stand in the way of change and innovation. Changing the
curriculum is not a neat and easy process (Thompson, 1981). The cost of
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Zimbabwe Open University 73
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

research, development of materials and in-servicing of personnel can be

prohibitive. There are also constraints of time. Change unsettles teachers.
Poorly qualified and inexperienced teachers do well in a familiar environment.
The requirement to take up new knowledge and skills demanded by change
unsettles them. Individuals tend to protect, preserve and promote their own
view of the world and their values (Bishop, 1995).

Meaningful change calls for effective leadership, strong and able leadership
characterized by people who are available, who can initiate an innovation
and vigorously attend to its implementation. Consensus building (user agreement
with innovation objectives and the manner of implementation) is sometimes
difficult to achieve particularly in diverse cultural and politically plural societies.
Lack of consensus building often leads to resistance to the innovation (Bishop,
1995).

An innovation is a dynamic, social process which occurs over a period of

time during which it may be modified as a result of that social process. That
time can often be longer than imagined. Unfortunately as noted by Bishop
(1995), time is a commodity which Third World Countries are desperately
short of. To this end, great changes are sometimes expected within an
impossible space of time.

Activity 7.8

? v Identify the problems and challenges facing curriculum change

and innovation in general.
v What are the challenges facing Zimbabwe in particular?
v In your opinion, how might the above problems be
reduced?

7.9 Suggestions
In adopting change strategies, there is no such thing as, “the approach”. Our
appreciation of the various approaches should enable us to borrow aspects
of the various available change strategies in order to come up with approaches
that are relevant and appropriate to our unique situations. We need to adopt
and adapt these available theoretical frameworks. There is need for
establishing some degree of shared power in decision-making between the
change agent and the user system in whatever approach adopted. This helps
to secure user commitment to innovations.
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74 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 7 Curriculum Change and Innovation

Innovations require careful planning so that they are relevant to the users
(offering relative advantages to existing practices). Change should be in
harmony with existing practices, values and characteristics of the user system.
Innovations should also be flexible and adaptable so that they are feasible.
They should provide benefits both material and non-material to the users.
This generates intrinsic motivation among users. Finally, efforts should be made
to remove possible barriers (resistance to innovations (Bishop, 1995).

Activity 7.9

? v Drawing from examples of curriculum innovation projects from

the post-independence era in Zimbabwe, discuss the concept,
“curriculum change and innovation”.

v Using one named example of curriculum innovation in post-

independence Zimbabwe, outline and explain the curriculum
innovation process.

v Discuss the roles played by the following as agents of curriculum

change and innovation in Zimbabwe:
(a) universities and colleges of education
(b) the Curriculum Development Unit
(c) Education Officers
(d) School Heads
(e) Teachers
(f) Parents.
v Examine the R, D and D model of curriculum change and
innovation. Discuss its suitability to the Zimbabwean context.

v Describe the Problem-Solver approach to curriculum innovation.

What makes its application difficult to the Zimbabwean situation?

v Compare and contrast the R, D and D and the Problem-solver

models of curriculum change and innovation.

v Discuss the problems faced by curriculum planners in the area of

change and innovation. Which of these problems are relevant to
the Zimbabwean situation?

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7.10Summary
In this unit, we defined curriculum change and innovation and proceeded to
discuss reasons for curriculum change. We then outlined the innovation process
and discussed the roles played by various change agents. We proceeded to
define the term ‘change strategy’ and critically examined the R, D and D and
the Problem-Solver strategies of the curriculum change and innovation. We
further discussed the challenges accompanying curriculum change and
innovation and then made suggestions regarding the planning thereof.

7.11 References
Bishop, G. (1995). Innovation in Education – MacMillan Educational Ltd.,
London.

Fullan, M.G. (1991). The New Meaning of Educational Change – Cassell

Educational, London.

Hawes, H. (1979). Curriculum and Reality in African Primary Schools –

Longman, Singapore.

Harris, A. (1978). Curriculum Innovation – The Open University Press,

London

Hoyle, E. and Bell, R (1972) Problems of Curriculum Innovation. The

Open University Press, London.

Obanya, P. (1987). A Curriculum Developer’s Manual World

Confederation of Organisations of the Teaching Profession –
Morges.

Thomson, A.R. (1981). Education and Development in Africa – The College

Press, Harare.

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76 Zimbabwe Open University
 8
Unit Eight

Gender Issues in Education

8.0 Introduction

A look at gender issues in education and the curriculum has been necessitated
by a variety of arguments. The social benefits of educating and training
women include infant survival, individual and family health, status and increased
productivity at work places, Zvobgo (1999:167). This shows that there are
benefits to be reaped by society if women are educated and trained. These
range from health, good standard of living, more production and sustenance
of the family unit. It is against this background that the curriculum should strive
for gender equality. We start the Unit by justifying why teachers should study
gender issues, an analysis of the (gender issues) prejudices, stereotypes and
language and the curriculum. We make suggestions on how to strike a gender
balance. Lastly, we consider the general implications of gender issues in
education and the curriculum.
Curriculum Development in Primary School Module DEP104

8.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of the unit you should be able to:

v explain why it is necessary to study gender issues

v analyse gender issues in education and the curriculum
v suggest ways of striking gender balance
v explore the general implications of gender issues to the
curriculum.

8.2 Why Gender Issues?

Societies in general have realised that the position of women needs to be
uplifted. Zvobgo (1999:167) believes that Zimbabwe has increasingly become
conscious of gender issues in the spheres” This implies that efforts have been
made to improve the status of women in all spheres of human activity in the
country.

Women were regarded as second class citizens, relegated to doing the menial
(low) jobs in society. On the other hand, men occupied the top positions in
society. The following extract shows the misconceptions about what women
should do in society.
Women just stay at home,
Fetch the water, firewood
And look after cattle,
Prepare the garden and
Plant seeds, do the
weeding, harvest
the crops, make bricks
for the school building,
washing and mending
clothes and raise
children.
Source: The Oxfam Gender Training Manual (1994).

The above statement covers all the jobs society thinks should be done by
women.

As curriculum planners we need to move away from this parachial conception

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Unit 8 Gender Issues in Education

(idea) of what constitutes a woman’s role. Women should be afforded the

opportunity to fulfil their potential. No barriers should be placed in their way
to progress.

Another reason why curriculum planners should be interested in gender issues

is to ensure the creation of an egalitarian (equal) society which recognizes
equality of all persons regardless of sex. There should be equality in
opportunities and treatment. The curriculum needs to make a contribution
towards redressing gender imbalances.

It has also been noted that the curriculum does not portray males and females
as equals. Females are made to occupy lesser roles in society.

Activity 8.1

? v Why should teachers study gender issues in education and

the curriculum?

8.3 Issues and Areas of Concern

There are issues and areas of concern to the curriculum planner in as far as
gender issues are concerned. These are prejudice, discrimination, stereotyping
and the area of language and the curriculum materials. Before we explore
these concepts, we want to highlight that these biases against girls start at
home. The process of socialization fosters the idea that girls and women are
less important than boys and men. Chirimanhunga (1996) contends that in
some cultures, boys and girls are ‘drilled’ to behave in different ways. This is
reinforced by the toys given to boys and girls. We are sure that you have the
ideas on the type of toys that are usually given to boys and girls. There are
some domestic chores for boys and girls for example, girls wash plates whilst
boys wash the father’s car. We wish to point that in some homes, there is
some degree of equality between men and women when it comes to domestic
chores. You may also be aware of homes where washing of plates and cooking
are done by both sexes. But you will agree that domestic chores in Zimbabwean
homes have largely remained a woman’s domain. Let us now turn to prejudice.

8.3.1Prejudice
Prejudice refers to learned beliefs and values that lead an individual or group
of individuals to be biased against members of particular groups according to
(Haralambos 1999:237).
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Where there is bias, there is no fairness. Society has for long been biased
against women because of their sex. Haralambos (1999) goes on to say
prejudice is therefore about what people think and is not necessarily translated
into actions.

We should not believe Haralambos’ argument that people do not usually

translate prejudices into behaviour. For example, if you, the teacher, think
that Mary always copies from John, if Mary scores a high mark, will you as
the teacher accept that Mary has the capacity to do well? Under normal
circumstances you would not hold highly Mary’s score. This may make you
not to congratulate Mary for a job well done. Your reaction will definitely
have a negative impact on Mary. She may withdraw or neglect her work. So
we can say that prejudices lead to the formation of negative attitudes and
behaviour towards a group of people – in this case women. As a teacher, you
should not hold prejudices against girls because of their sex.

Activity 8.2

? v In your own words explain the term prejudice. How does

this affect the performance of girls at school?

8.3.2 Discrimination
Haralambos (1999:237) explains that discrimination is ‘the unfavourable
treatment of all persons socially assigned to a particular category.

The statement means that people who occupy a certain class in society may
be treated unfavourably as a result of particular characteristic(s) they share.
In this case girls are treated as less gifted than boys – so they should not be
given a lot of attention during the teaching and learning process. We can
conclude that discrimination is about actions, (Haralambos 1999).

There is deliberate action to segregate or deprive those who are being

discriminated. For example, girls are not explicitly encouraged to major in
the Sciences because this is not regarded as a girls’ domain. As a result, girls
have also accepted this view and they neglect the Sciences and concentrate
on the Arts which are seen as easier as compared to the former. The implication
is that girls who are talented in the Sciences fail to get the opportunity to
develop these talents which becomes a waste of talent.

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80 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 8 Gender Issues in Education

Activity 8.3

? v
v
Explain the term discrimination
In what way are girls disadvantaged due to discrimination?

8.3.3 Stereotypes
These are oversimplified or untrue generalisations about social groups
(Haralambos, 1999). Gender stereotyping is the creation of fixed impressions
about roles and relationships between men and women. In most cases, the
impressions are not correct, for example, the biased view that boys are more
intelligent than girls (Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture 2000).

We can explain gender stereotyping as the cultural process that conditions

girls/boys to behave in certain ways that are acceptable to the dominant group
of the society.

Traditional gender stereotyping has reduced women to second positions in

society through socialization (Greyrenstein 1996). The long hours of
socialization in the home and school has led women to accept the subservient
roles they occupy in society. Let us now examine some of the stereotypes
which have been passed from one generation to the other. These are that:
œ Women are weak
œ Women are followers
œ Women are passive
œ Women are emotional
œ Women are dependent
œ Women are fearful
œ Women are unsure of themselves
œ Women are less intelligent than men.
œ Men are strong
œ Men are aggressive
œ Men are independent
œ Men are fearless
œ Men are self-assured
œ Men are rational
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œ Men are field-independent

œ Men are leaders
(Greyvenstein 1996); Haralambos 1999); Ministry of Education,
Sport and Culture (2000)

The above stereotypes have led women to believe that they are inferior to
men. This has led them not to aspire to occupy challenging positions in society
and instead embrace that the place of a woman is in the kitchen; she should
be a mother, wife and child bearer. The top positions are for men this appears
to be the message we are getting from the above stereotypes.

It is also important for you to note that women of today are still associated
with care giving professions such as nursing, teaching, secretarial and social
work. (Greyvenstein 1996). The following enrolment information shows the
number of women enrolled in institutions of Higher Education in Zimbabwe,
in 1994.

Enrolment at Msasa Vocational Training Centre 1994

œ 187 students were enrolled
œ Out of these only 16 were females

Enrolment at National Technical Colleges 1994

œ 13 222 students were enrolled
œ 9 671 students were males
œ 3 551 students were females
œ a majority of the women were doing business and secretarial courses
(Zvobgo, 1999).
At school, stereotyping leads girls to believe that they are not as good as
boys. So when boys, score high marks and girls score low marks, girls regard
this as the norm. This has led girls not to apply a lot of effort to their studies.
Stereotyping induces a sense of hopelessness and acceptence of the status
quo. We can conclude that stereotyping makes women docile and inferior to
men.

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Unit 8 Gender Issues in Education

Activity 8.4

? v Choose one stereotype and carry out a mini research so as

to find out the truth about the stereotype.
v Why is stereotyping not a good thing in education?

8.4 Language and Curriculum Materials

Gender bias is not only common in teacher pupil relationships. Language and
curriculum materials do have gender biases. Curriculum materials refer to
textbooks, charts, posters, pamphlets, films and video cassettes used in the
teaching and learning situation. Language and materials are not neutral as
most people might want to believe or make others believe. They tell a story
when it comes to gender relations in society. The story they tell has the effect
of encouraging or discouraging the females.

It has been observed that language and curriculum materials reflect thoughts
and thought processes; the way language is used reflects how members of a
social group view life and the world in general (Ministry of Education, Sport
and Culture 2000). In the same way, the language and images used reflect a
certain view of what role women should play in society.

The language and diagrams used in curriculum materials are full of bias against
women and girls. In most textbooks, you have seen women doing the
following activities:
œ Fetching water
œ Playing with babies or dolls
œ Pounding grain
œ Caring for the sick or nurses
œ Kneeling before men
œ Serving men
On the other hand the curriculum materials portray men as
œ pilots
œ doctors
œ mechanics
œ miners
œ farmers.
(Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture, 2000)

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An analysis of 21 images in a Zimbabwe ‘0’ Level Science textbook

reflecting males and females in different ways.

Description of Image Sex of Person Page Message Implied

Shown
Crossing pollinating maize Man 38 Men are good farmers
Vertebrate animals Man 46 Men are good farmers
Upside-down peristalsis Man 51 Men are able to do difficult
tasks
Breeding cattle Man 64 Men are able to breed health
animal
Refining copper Man 97 Refining copper is a
complicated business that can
be done by men
Fertilizer bags on the way Men 108 Farming –modern farming is
to farmers –making for men
ammonia
The world’s largest Men 111 Complicated processes can
electrolysis plant (Sable only be done by men-it’s a
chemicals) world of men
Men 122
Science and uses of energy Men 125 Science is for men
Weight lifting Man 160 Weight lifting is a dangerous
and taxing activity, only men
can do it
Glass blower working on a Man 170 Vase making is a difficult
vase task. Only men can do it
Light pipe in hospital use Men 178 Medicine is for men
Mechanical systems Men 188 Mechanics are difficult – they
are for men
Water Men 213 Problem-solving is for men
Sewage treatment in Harare Man 221 Cities can not do without men
Mining Men 223 Mining is a dangerous
activity. It is for men
Spraying the breeding Man 247 Chemicals are dangerous for
grounds of mosquitoes women and children to
handle
Dagga and grass huts Woman and a 170 Women should look after the
girl home
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84 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 8 Gender Issues in Education

Teaching children to wash Women and 257 Rearing babies is for women
children
Vaccinating babies Women and 264 Raising children is a
children women’s job
Source: Science in Zimbabwe 2000

Description of Image Person in the Page Message Implied

Image
Picture of boys using a Boys 19 Boys are adventurous
binocuculars
Walking in the bush Boys 29 Boys are not afraid
Man sitting on a stool and a Man and girl 33 Women should not sit
girl on a mat on chairs
Hunting wild animals with Man 69 Hunting is a
guns dangerous thing. Only
man can do it
Women winnowing grain Woman 110 Woman’s job is in the
home
Woman making Doyles Women 112 Woman can do
knitting better
Woman interviewing Women 115 A women cannot
another women interview a man
Man a judging a crippled Man, girl 123 Women are hopeless
girl

Source: Structures and Skills in English 4 (1993)

Out of the images, none is showing women and girls in dominant roles. Girls
at school are learning about men and boys, the curriculum is about men and
boys. Women and girls who are continually exposed to these images will not
question the privileges enjoyed by men and boys in society. Girls are
conditioned not to aim too high, for their place is in the kitchen.

We have outlined some of the images contained in school textbooks and

other curricula materials. Let us now look at some of the language used to
show the inferiority of women and girls.
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The following are some of the common messages about women:

œ You are behaving like a woman
œ Men do not cry
œ Emotions are for women
œ As dull as your mother
œ Men are not jealous like women
( Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture :2000).

This kind of language has the effect of devaluing women and girls. The
statement ‘As dull as your mother’ suggests that women are not intelligent.
Men are the ones who are intelligent. The effect is to discourage girls from
working hard. As a result, most of the girls do not do well in examinations.

The following is an example of how language portray women as hopeless and

dependent.

Clara: “… poor Eunice dared not slaughter one of the fowls to provide relish for her
aunt without her husband’s permission…… Of course he buys the groceries ………”

The quotation shows that Eunice is dependent on her husband. She cannot
make any decisions. She needs permission from her husband. The husband
is the breadwinner, he buys everything needed in the home.

Activity 8.5
? v Evaluate the effect of language used in curriculum materials in
the performance of both boys and girls.

8.5 Implementation of Gender Balance

The challenge to curriculum planners and to you as teachers is to strike gender
balance. This is important if girls are to fully benefit from educational
experiences. The curriculum is the platform for passing on knowledge, skills,
values and attitudes. There is need to do away with prejudice, discrimination,
stereotyping and negative language and curricula materials that portray women
and girls as second class citizens. Curriculum planners and you as teachers
should try to deal with the negative perception of women.

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Unit 8 Gender Issues in Education

Sexuality is women’s most valuable asset and this is seen as both the causeof
women’s downfall and dangerous to men, whereas men are valued for other
attributes which include their power, strength and authority

(Greyvenstein 1996:78).

The quotation suggests that the most important asset of a woman is her
sexuality. This is why parents and other people do not place much value on
the education of girls. If they fail, they will get married and have children.

There is need to restructure the curriculum so as to benefit all members of

society. The curriculum should be non-sexist and democratic, (ANC 1992).
Women should not just be seen but they must be given the opportunity to be
heard. Neutral terms should be used, for example, Head Teachers in place
of Headmasters.

Another way of striking gender balance is to dispel the belief that Science and
Mathematics are a male domain. You can do this by using examples of women
who have done well in these areas. This may encourage girls to work hard so
as to score better results.

There is also need to overcome traditions and stereotyping that block the
advancement of women. Zvobgo (1999) observes that African cultural
attitudes consider paying fees towards a girl’s education as not important at
all. This is a result of the traditional thinking that the place of the girl is in the
kitchen. So in such situations, girls fail to enroll and their talent (potential) is
lost.

The way women and girls are portrayed in curricular materials needs to change.
The materials should be:
œ Neutral
œ Present women and girls in non-traditional roles such as cooking and
fetching water
œ Women and girls should also be presented flying aeroplanes and leading
œ Males should also be seen doing domestic chores
œ Expressions that demean women and girls should be avoided,
expressions such as, "You are dull as your mother," should not be
found in textbooks or used by teachers
œ Curriculum materials should give females and males equal power in
relationships
œ There is need for positive discrimination
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Activity 8.6

? v How can gender balance be achieved in the curriculum?

8.6 General Implications to Curriculum

There are general implications to the curriculum that result from gender issues.
There is need to address the gender imbalances as a matter of urgency and
the curriculum should accommodate both sexes so as to give both sexes equal
opportunities in examinations and careers.

Failure to restructure unbalanced concepts and images mean that the girl-
child’s potential will not be realised leading to a wastage of talent. It is quite
possible that the girl-child who is being discouraged by the language and
images in the curriculum will discover the AIDS vaccine or become the future
president.

Lastly, you as teachers need to modify your attitudes towards girls. If positive
changes are not taken, it means that girls will continue to under perform. This
means that they will continue to occupy low positions in society and society
will also be a loser as there are benefits to be derived from the education of
girls.

8.7 Summary
In this unit, we have highlighted the following issues:
œ Gender is a product of socialization
œ Gender stereotyping is the creation of fixed impressions about roles
and relationships between men and women
œ Prejudice refers to learned beliefs and values that lead to an individual
or group of individuals to be biased against members of particular groups
œ Stereotyping has led to women being devalued as second class citizens
œ Language is one of the tools which has been used to portray women
and girls as inferior to men and boys
œ Curriculum materials have images that show women and girls as inferior
to men and boys
œ There is need to restructure the curriculum so as to implement gender
balance
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88 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 8 Gender Issues in Education

œ Failure to strike gender balance will mean girls will continue to occupy
the lower level jobs in the country, thereby leading to a wastage of
talent.

Activity 8.7

? v Evaluate the impact of gender stereotyping on the

performance of girls.
v Suggest ways of striking gender balance.
v Why is it necessary to achieve gender balance in
education?

Glossary

Sex is the state of being male or female. Female/male differences are biological.
You are either born a female or male.

Sex bias: the character of behaviour and attitudes resulting from sex
stereotypes. You may hold negative attitudes towards females or males due
to stereotyping of persons.

Sexism: social relationship where a person or group is treated unfavourable

because of their sex

Gender: the social or cultural differences between females and males.

Gender stereotyping: fixed impressions about sex roles and relationship

between males and females.

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8.8 References
ANC: (1992). Draft Education Policy of African. National Congress.
Johannesburg. ANC.

Dawson, D. (1993). Structures and Skills in English 4. Longman. Harare.

Greyvenstein, A. (1996). Woman: The Secondary Species in Education.

South African Journal of Education Volume 16. Number 2. Cape
Town.

Haralambos, M (ed) (2001). Sociology: Themes and Perspectives.

Collins. London.

Stout, W (ed.) (2000). Science in Zimbabwe: A Practical Approach.

Academic Books Zimbabwe. Harare.

The Ministry of Education (2000). Gender Resource Book for Teachers.

UNICEF. Harare.

Zvobgo, J.R. (1999). The Post-Colonial State and Educational Reform:

Zimbabwe, Zambia and Botswana. ZPH. Harare.

Recommended Reading

Haralambos, M (ed) (2001). Sociology: Themes and Respective. Collins.

London.

The Ministry of Education (2000). Gender Resource Book for Teachers.

UNICEF. Harare.

Zvobgo, R.J. (1999). The Post-Colonial State and Educational Reform;

Zimbabwe, Zambia and Botswana. ZPH. Harare.

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90 Zimbabwe Open University