Learning
Definition
Learning refers to a relatively permanent or durable change in behaviour or
knowledge resulting from experience. It does not include temporary changes
caused by fatigue, drugs, or mood. It involves both the acquisition of knowledge
and skills as well as the development of habits and attitudes. Through learning,
individuals adapt to their environment, refine their responses, and modify their
behaviour to achieve goals more effectively.
Types of Learning
Psychologists have identified three major types of learning:
1. Conditioning — associative learning through stimulus and response
linkages.
2. Operant Conditioning — learning through consequences of behaviour.
3. Observational Learning — learning through observing and imitating others.
1. Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov, 1903)
Concept
Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning where a neutral stimulus
acquires the ability to evoke a response originally elicited by another stimulus.
Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, discovered this while studying salivation in dogs. He
observed that dogs began to salivate not only when food was presented, but also
when they heard footsteps or saw the lab assistant—stimuli previously associated
with food.
This phenomenon led Pavlov to describe “psychic reflexes”, which later became
known as conditioned reflexes.
Key Terms
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally elicits a response
(e.g., food).
Unconditioned Response (UCR): The natural reaction to UCS (e.g.,
salivation).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after pairing
with UCS, elicits the same response (e.g., sound of bell).
Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation at
the sound of bell).
Basic Processes in Classical Conditioning
1. Acquisition:
The initial stage of learning when a response is first established. The CS
must be presented shortly before the UCS to form a strong association—
this timing is called stimulus contiguity. Novel or intense stimuli tend to
become conditioned more readily.
2. Extinction:
If the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS, the CR gradually weakens
and eventually disappears. This process is known as extinction.
3. Spontaneous Recovery:
After extinction, if the CS is presented again after a rest period, the CR may
reappear temporarily. This shows that extinction suppresses but does not
erase learning.
4. Stimulus Generalization:
The tendency of a CR to occur in response to stimuli similar to the CS. For
example, Little Albert, conditioned to fear a white rat, also showed fear
toward other white objects.
5. Stimulus Discrimination:
The learned ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond only
to the specific CS.
Applications of Classical Conditioning
Conditioned Fear and Anxiety: Many phobias are learned through classical
conditioning.
Pleasant Responses: Advertisers often pair products with positive stimuli
(music, celebrities) to evoke positive emotions.
Physiological Conditioning: Studies by Ader and Cohen (1984, 1993)
demonstrated that immune responses could be suppressed through
conditioning procedures.
Sexual Arousal: Research by Pfaus, Kippin & Centeno (2001) showed that
sexual arousal can be influenced by conditioned cues such as fragrance or
environment.
2. Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)
Concept
Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which voluntary behaviours are
strengthened or weakened by their consequences. Skinner emphasized that
behaviour is shaped and maintained by reinforcement or punishment rather than
by antecedent stimuli alone.
He used the Skinner Box to demonstrate how animals learn through
reinforcement. When a rat pressed a lever and received food, the likelihood of
lever pressing increased.
Key Processes
1. Acquisition and Shaping:
Behaviour is learned gradually through reinforcement of successive
approximations. For example, teaching a pigeon to peck a disc by rewarding
steps toward that behaviour.
2. Extinction:
If reinforcement is stopped, the conditioned behaviour declines.
3. Stimulus Control:
Behaviour can come under the control of specific stimuli (e.g., a student
studies more effectively in a quiet room due to past reinforcement).
Reinforcement
Reinforcement strengthens a behaviour.
Primary Reinforcers: Naturally satisfying stimuli (food, water, warmth).
Secondary Reinforcers: Acquire value through association with primary
reinforcers (money, praise, grades).
Schedules of Reinforcement
Reinforcement can occur continuously or intermittently.
Schedule Type Description Example
Reinforcement after a fixed number of
Fixed Ratio (FR) Factory piecework pay
responses
Variable Ratio Reinforcement after an unpredictable
Gambling, lottery
(VR) number
Fixed Interval (FI) Reinforcement after a fixed time period Monthly salary
Variable Interval Reinforcement after varying time Random teacher pop-
(VI) intervals quizzes
Variable schedules generally produce greater resistance to extinction.
Types of Reinforcement and Punishment
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behaviour
(praise after good performance).
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase
behaviour (taking medicine to relieve pain).
o Involves escape and avoidance learning.
Punishment: Introducing unpleasant consequences or removing pleasant
ones to reduce behaviour (fine for speeding).
Biological Constraints on Conditioning
Instinctive Drift: Animals revert to instinctive behaviours that interfere with
learned responses.
Conditioned Taste Aversion: Animals easily associate nausea with taste,
even after one pairing. Seligman’s “Sauce Béarnaise Syndrome” illustrates
this phenomenon.
3. Observational Learning (Albert Bandura)
Concept
Observational learning occurs when behaviour is acquired by watching others
(models) rather than through direct experience. Bandura’s famous Bobo Doll
experiments demonstrated how children imitated aggressive behaviour observed
in adults, highlighting the social nature of learning.
Four Key Processes
1. Attention: One must attend to the model’s behaviour and its consequences.
2. Retention: The behaviour must be stored as a mental image or symbolic
representation.
3. Reproduction: The individual must have the ability to reproduce the
observed behaviour.
4. Motivation: Behaviour is performed only if there is expectation of reward
or reinforcement.
Bandura’s social learning theory bridged behaviourism and cognitive psychology
by introducing cognitive processes into learning.
Relationship Between Learning and Memory
Interdependence
Learning and memory are inseparable processes. Learning involves acquiring new
information or skills, while memory is the process of encoding, storing, and
retrieving that information.
Without memory, learning cannot be retained, and without learning, memory has
no new content to store.
Key Aspects
Both are cognitive processes rooted in brain activity.
Learning may relate to present or future adaptations, while memory deals
with the past.
Brain regions such as the hippocampus and cerebral cortex play critical
roles in both processes.
Learning strengthens neural pathways, while memory consolidates them
for long-term use.
Individual differences in attention, motivation, and practice influence how
effectively learning translates into memory.
Conclusion
Learning is not a singular process but a comprehensive mechanism through which
individuals interact with their environment, acquire experiences, and modify
behaviour. Whether through association (classical conditioning), consequence
(operant conditioning), or imitation (observational learning), learning shapes
human personality, cognition, and adaptation. Its deep connection with memory
underscores the integrated nature of cognitive functions vital to growth, survival,
and education.