Roseville Secondary School Enugu

A project of Ikota Educational Foundation.

SECOND TERM 2025/2026 ACADEMIC SESSION
SUBJECT: BASIC SCIENCE
CLASS: JSS 2

EXPECTATIONS

[Link] YOUR NOTE OR PRINT AND SPIRAL BIND

[Link] GRADED ASSESSMENT OF 20 MARKS BEFORE CAT = 60%
[Link]: 40%
[Link]-GRADED ASSESSMENT
[Link] TO BE SUBMITTED IN WEEK 6
[Link] GRADED ASSESSMENT OF 20 MARKS BEFORE EXAM= 60%
[Link] 40%

NAME OF TEACHER: MISS. UDUIJE CALISTA & MS. CHIKAM OFORDILE

FOR ENQUIRES: 08105871481 & 07067288577.
EMAIL : calistauduije@[Link] &
 SCHEME OF WORK FOR SECOND TERM

WEEKS TOPICS
1 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
2 HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
3 HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
4 SKELETAL AND MUSCULAR
SYSTEM
5 SIMPLE MACHINE
6 NB : PROJECT TO BE SUBMITTED
ON FRIDAY, THIS WEEK
7 YOU AND ENERGY: ENERGY,
WORK AND POWER
8 RUSTING

HOLIDAY ASSIGNMENT

1. READ WEEK ONE TOPIC ON “RESPIRATORY SYSTEM” AND ANSWER THE

FOLLOWING QUESTION BELOW.
1. List the 3 major parts of the respiratory system: (3mks)
2. In a tabular form distinguish between breathing and respiration. Three differences only (3 mks)
3. Define pulse rate. (2 mks)
4. Briefly explain the differences in breathing rates before and after exercise. (3 mks)
5. Explain the mechanism of breathing. (3 mks)
6. Outline the 3 reasons why respiration is necessary in human beings. (1 ½ mks)
7. List three respiratory diseases, and explain one. (4 ½ mks)

TOTAL MARKS = 20
Note: Write this assignment inside your Basic science note.
Deadline for Submission –Thursday of week 1.

2. READ FROM LAST TERM’S TOPIC FOR YOUR KICK OF TEST

PROJECT
Project Title
Production of Herbal First-Aid Balm (Muscle Rub) Using Safe Botanical Extracts
Rationale:
Students frequently experience muscle soreness, bruises, or minor injuries during sports, PHE activities, and
school exercises. Commercial balms can be costly, chemical-laden, or unavailable for students. This project
allows students to produce a safe, natural, and marketable first-aid balm using botanical extracts such as
ginger, lemongrass, and menthol. The project integrates Intermediate Science (mixtures, extraction), PHE
(sports injury management, first aid), and Horticulture/Crop Production (knowledge of plant-based extracts)
while teaching entrepreneurship, hands-on skills, and exhibition readiness.

Problem It Solves:
1. Muscle soreness, bruises, and minor injuries in students.
2. Limited access to affordable, safe, and natural first-aid balms.
3. Provides practical, hands-on experience in herbal product formulation.

SDGs Covered:
SDG 3: Good Health and Well-being
SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth (entrepreneurship)

Subjects Integrated:
Intermediate Science: Extraction, mixtures, understanding natural substance properties
PHE: Sports injuries, first aid, health awareness
Horticulture/Crop Production: Knowledge of herbs, scones, and botanical extracts

Rubrics (20 Marks Total):

Practical Work/Assembly: 5 marks
Research & Paperwork: 5 marks
Product Creation & Quality: 5 marks
Presentation & Demonstration: 5 marks

Materials Needed:
Shea butter or coconut oil
Petroleum jelly (optional)
Herbal extracts: ginger, lemongrass, menthol
Small tins or jars
Double boiler or heat-safe container
Stirring rod or spoon
Labels and marker pens.

Procedure (Step-by-Step):
1. Prepare Base: Gently melt shea butter, coconut oil, or petroleum jelly in a double boiler.
2. Add Extracts: Mix ginger, lemongrass, and menthol extracts; stir until homogenous.
3. Pour & Set: Pour the mixture into labelled tins or jars of oil and allow to cool and solidify.
4. Test: Demonstrate safe application on a student arm or mannequin.
5. Document: Take photos and record steps for the paperwork/report.

Paperwork/Report Guide:
Title, Aim, Problem Statement
Materials List
Step-by-Step Method
Observations (texture, aroma, application)
Safety Notes
Photos of product and demonstration
Conclusion and Recommendations.

Entrepreneurial Skills:
Can serve as a small business opportunity, especially for school events or local markets. Can also be
displayed during Open-house for sells.

Deadline: Friday of week 6.

 WEEK 1
TOPIC : RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of this class, students should be able to:
■ Define respiration
■ Identify parts of the respiratory system
■ Explain functions of the respiratory parts
■ Distinguish between breathing and respiration
■ Describe the effect of exercise on pulse rate and breathing
■ Identify problems
■
■
■ associated with breathing

Respiration is the breaking down of food substances mainly carbohydrate and fat in the presence of oxygen
to release energy. Respiration could be either
1. Aerobic (in the presence of oxygen) or
2. Anaerobic (in the absence of oxygen)
NB: Some living things do not require oxygen for respiration and they are called ANAEROBES. Some
require and are called AEROBES

PARTS OF THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

There are 3 major parts of the respiratory system:
1. The airway which consist of ;
nostril, pharynx, larynx (also called voice box),trachea (also called wind pipe), bronchi and
bronchioles
2. The lungs
3. The muscles of respiration (diaphragm)
 The airway, which includes the nostril, pharynx, larynx, trachea (also called wind pipe), bronchi and
bronchioles carries air between the body’s exterior and the lungs.
NB The air is warmed by the body and moistened by the mucous membrane.
The nostrils lead to posterior portion of the mouth cavity, called pharynx.
The larynx lead into the trachea. A flat piece of tissue, the epiglottis covers the entrance into the
larynx to prevent particles from going into the larynx when food is swallowed in the gullet/
oesophagus which lies a bit behind the trachea.
The trachea branches into the bronchus. Each bronchus leads into the lungs as smaller branches
called BRONCHIOLES, this now leads to numerous air sac called ALVEOLI ( Alveoli are small air
filled sack found in the lungs, where gaseous exchange occurs).

BREATHING AND RESPIRATION

Breathing is the process of gaseous exchange between the respiratory organs in the body and the outside
environment.
Breathing is divided into two parts
a. Inspiration (inhalation) – breathing in of air or oxygen into the respiratory organs
b. Expiration (exhalation) – breathing out of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapour (H2O) into the atmosphere
espiration is the process whereby carbohydrate (glucose) is broken down to release Renergy.

EQUATION FOR RESPIRATION

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O + 6CO2

TYPES OF RESPIRATION
There are two major types of respiration;
a. Aerobic respiration
b. Anaerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration
This is a type of respiration that occurs in the presence of oxygen. Most plant and animal cells respire
aerobically, i.e. in the presence of oxygen
b. Anaerobic respiration
This is a type of respiration that does not require oxygen to take place. It is also called fermentation. It takes
place in yeast and bacterial such a E. coli

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BREATHING AND RESPIRATION

Breathing Respiration

Breathing is a physical process. Respiration is a chemical process.

Breathing can be controlled Respiration cannot be controlled.

 Breathing is an exchange of gases between cells Respiration is a process that takes place in the
and the external environment. cells.

Breathing is a process that takes in oxygen into Respiration is a process of taking in oxygen from
the lungs and brings out carbon dioxide from the the lungs into the bloodstream and cells
lungs into the environment.

THE RESPIRATORY PROCESS

The nostrils are the openings of the nose through which air enters the body. The nostrils are lined with a
membrane of cells that secretes mucus which moistens the air we breathe. There are hairs on the lining of
the nostrils which filter the air, allowing any dust particles to stick on the mucus membrane. The dust-
carrying mucus is removed from time to time to ensure cleanliness of the nostrils.

The nostrils lead into pharynx, which is the lower end of the mouth cavity. The pharynx leads into the
larynx, which is also called the voice box. The larynx leads into the trachea, which is also called the
windpipe. The trachea branches into two bronchi (Bronchus singular)
The trachea and bronchi appear like rings of soft bones. This makes them strong for their functions.
Each bronchus leads into a lung.
The lungs are two identical organs located in the chest cavity, placed on the two sides of the heart.
The lungs are red and covered with a membrane called pleural membrane.
Inside the lungs, the bronchi branch into tiny tubes called bronchioles.
The bronchioles branch again into many air sacs called alveoli (alveolus – singular)
■ The respiratory system carries out the function of taking oxygen into the body and giving out carbondioxide
and water vapour.
■ It provides energy that the body uses for its daily activities.
■ It also assists to break down complex food molecules into simpler molecules for absorption.
■ All these are defined as respiration.
■ It means respiration are of two types
Cellular respiration is called tissue or internal respiration
and ventilation or gaseous exchange called breathing or external respiration.

PULSE: This is the rhythmic beating of your heart While PULSE RATE is the number of times your
heart beats in a minutes. A normal resting pulse rate for adults s between 60 - 100 beats per minutes
( bpm)

PULSE RATE
■ This is the number of times your heart beats per minutes OR The pulse is how many times in a
minute that our arteries expand and contract in response to the heartbeat.
■ This rate is exactly equal to the heartbeat and the rate of heart contractions.
■ These heart contractions cause the increase or decrease in blood pressure
■ Pulse is a direct measure of the heart beat rate. The pulse rate can be normal, rapid or slow.
■ Pulse rate can be measured using a sphygmomanometer or also called Blood pressure gauge. This
works with a stethoscope for hearing the beats.
 On Inspiration

The thoracic cavity enlarged, causing air to enter the lungs from the external surroundings.
This is done in the following way:
■ Muscles of the chest contract, moving the ribs upwards and outwards.
■ causing the sternum to move upwards and outwards also.
■ When the diaphragm contracts, it flattens downward pushing out the ribs.
■ These movements enlarge the rib cage, increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity. This creates a
vacuum e.g. low pressure in the thoracic cavity which is filled at once by the air from the outside
rushing into the lungs to inflate them.

On Expiration
■ The thoracic cavity goes back to its normal shape, causing air from the lungs to flow out to the
external environment.
■ This is done in the following way: As the intercostal muscles contract, the ribs move downwards
and inwards.
■ This causes the diaphragm to relax and move upwards to assume its normal shape reducing the
volume of thoracic cavity.
■ This creates a higher pressure there than in the atmosphere.
■ This forces the air out of the lungs into the external environment.

Pulse rate for adults (>18yrs) should be between 60 – 100bpm while for children (6yrs – 15yrs) 70 –
100bpm
The pulse rate varies among individuals of different ages, sizes of the body and state of health.
Rapid pulse rate may be caused by:
1. Fear
2. Rigorous muscular activities
3. Fever
4. Heart diseases
Exercises such as walking, jogging, running and playing games have stimulating effect on the body.
They are good because they increases the rate of heartbeat as shown by the pulse rate, and so bring about a
great flow of blood through the body.
They increase the breathing rate and, therefore, strengthen the lungs.

LOCATION OF PULSE
Pulse can be located
1. Under the wrists
2. Behind the knees
3. At the temple on each side of the head
4. On top or the inner side of the foots
5. Inside of an elbow
6. Side of the neck

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH BREATHING

There are health conditions which make breathing difficult for some people. Such health conditions usually
affect the performance of some important organs of respiration.
The health conditions may have hereditary or environmental causes.
Some of these conditions include pneumonia, tuberculosis, bronchitis, asthma, lung cancer, emphysema
PNEUMONIA
Pneumonia is a disease of the lungs in which the air sacs of the lungs are clogged up with mucus, making
gaseous exchange difficult.
It is caused by bacteria present in an unhealthy, cold and wet environment.
Sufferers experience pains in the chest and difficulty in breathing
TUBERCULOSIS – is a disease of the lungs in which the lungs lose their elasticity and are unable to allow
gaseous exchange.
It is caused by bacteria. Sufferers experience prolonged cough and pains.
ASTHMA – is a disease of the bronchi in which the sufferers experience shortness of breath or temporary
breathlessness.
It can be triggered off by a dusty environment.
LUNG CANCER
Lung cancer is an uncontrolled proliferation of cells in the lungs. There are several forms of lung cancer, but
the most common are those involving the epithelial cells lining the bronchi and bronchioles.
CHRONIC BRONCHITIS
When an irritant reaching the bronchi and bronchioles will stimulate an increased secretion of mucus.
In chronic bronchitis, the air passages becomes clogged with mucus and this leads to a persistent cough.
Chronic bronchitis is usually associated with cigarette smoking.
COLD
HAY FEVER : Dust inhaled from flower pollen grain can cause hay fever
SILICOSIS: A disease of the lungs caused by inhalation of crystalline silica dust.

EVALUATION

i. Define respiration
ii. Identify parts of the respiratory system
iii. Explain functions of the respiratory parts
iv. Distinguish between breathing and respiration
v. Describe the effect of exercise on pulse rate and breathing
vi. Identify problems associated with breathing
 WEEK 2
TOPIC: HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end this topic, the students should be able to;
1. Define reproduction
2. Identify parts of the reproductive system and their functions
3. Explain puberty and secondary sexual characteristics
4. Outline the importance of reproduction

Reproduction is the process by which organisms replicate themselves.

Reproduction (or procreation or breeding) is the biological process by which new individual organisms –
"offspring" – are produced from their "parent" or parents. Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all
known life; each individual organism exists as the result of reproduction. There are two forms of
reproduction: asexual and sexual.

In sexual reproduction, offspring is produced by the mating of two different sex cells (called gamete) which
usually come from two parents (male and female). In sexual reproduction two parents are involved.

In asexual reproduction, an individual parent produces an offspring by itself; only one parent is present.
Asexual reproduction could be natural or artificial.

Functions of the parts of reproductive system

Male: The male organs include the testicles, two epididymis, vas deferens and the penis.
Female: the female organs comprise of two ovaries, the fallopian tubes, the uterus and vagina.

FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE PARTS

THE EXTERNAL PARTS (VULVA);

• CLITORIS: It is the most sexually sensitive part of the woman.

Function serves as a point of enjoyment during sexual intercourse.
• URETHRA OPENING: An opening for the passage of urine.
• LABIA MAJOR: Two thick outer lip or pad immediately pubis, housing the openings of the
clitoris, urethra and the vagina.
• LABIA MINORA: Two thin soft pads, pinkish in colour. They are directly after the major and
protect the opening of the urethra and vaginal.
• HYMEN: A thin membrane covering the vaginal opening when the female is still a virgin.

THE INTERNAL PARTS;

• VAGINA: This connects the vulva (a general term for external genitals like labia minora and
majora) directly to the cervix. It has 3 functions, namely:
Functions
i. Serves as an outlet for menstruation.
ii. It receives the penis and introduces semen (a fluid containing sperm cells and the fluid for the
sperm cells to swim) during sexual intercourse.
iii. And serves as a birth canal / passage for the delivery of the baby.

• CERVIX: Is the opening/mouth of the womb. It connects the vagina to the uterus. medically can be
used as an outlet for family planning.
Functions: Barrier against infection using it secreted thick mucus, it has a changing consistency for
fertility. It can increase in size diameter during labour (fully at 10 cm).
• UTERUS (WOMB): A thick hollow, pear- shaped like muscular organ inside the woman’s body
located at pelvic/hip cavity region.
Function: accommodates the growing foetus and provides a safe place for proper development during pregnancy,
helps to push the baby out during labor.
• FALLOPIAN TUBE (OVIDUCT): These are two tubes that connects the ovaries to the womb.
Functions: serves as a meeting place for the sperm and egg to fertilize and then move to the womb
for implantation.
• OVARIES: They are like two small egg-shaped bags on each side of the fallopian tubes.
Functions: they produce the female egg / ova, they produce the female hormone known as oestrogen
and progesterone that help in ovulation and pregnancy respectively and also in secondary
development
NB : Mon pubis are mound of fatty tissues over the pubic bone.

FUNCTIONS OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE PARTS

External Male Parts:
• PENIS: A rod-shaped organ that hangs downward in front of a man’s thigh used for sexual
intercourse that becomes erect when filled with blood. Function: used for sexual intercourse, serves
as a passage for sperm and urine.

• SCROTUM: Is a sac – like organ found behind the penis. Each sac contains two testes. Function: It
protects the testes from damage.

Internal Male Organ:

• TESTES: The two round –shaped organs held inside the scrotum. Function: They produce the male
egg (sperm cell). They also produce male sex hormone.
• VAS DEFERENS (SPERM DUCT): They are tubes which pass from each testes to the urethra, it
passes sperms from where it is produced to the urethra. Function: serve as passage for sperm.
• PROSTATE GLAND : It is a gland that secretes a fluid that mixes with sperm to form semen.
Function: The fluid substance secreted helps the sperm to swim.
• SEMINAL VESICLE: Secretions from the seminal vesicles make up about 60 percent of the
volume of the semen, with most of the remainder coming from the prostate gland. It also secretes an
alkaline fluid that nourishes sperm especially when the sperm is in the woman’s body. Makes
up the majority of semen.
• URETHRA: It is tube that passes through the penis. NB IT IS A URINOGENITAL ORAGN IN
MALE Function: Serves as a passage for urine. Sperm passes through it during sexual intercourse.

Puberty and secondary sexual characteristics

Puberty is a biological transitional stage between childhood and adulthood when a rise in sex hormones
triggers the development of secondary sexual characteristics and the achievement of reproduction
capacity. The hormones are estrogen and testosterone in male and female respectively.
 The reproductive organs therefore produce sex hormones which cause the changes in the adolescent’s
body.

Secondary sexual characteristic changes

• Menstruation starts in girls
• Enlargement of testis and testicles in boys
• Pubic hair on and around the genitals
• Boys shoulders broaden and their muscles become bigger and stronger.
• Development of breast in girls.

Importance of Reproduction
• Ensures continuous existence of species
• Aids the survival of the organism in different and new environment
• Leads to the production of organisms with desirable traits and vigor
• Leads to the increase in the number of organisms.

Evaulation
1. Define reproduction
2. Identify parts of the reproductive system and their functions
3. Explain puberty and secondary sexual characteristics
4. Outline the importance of reproduction.
 WEEK 3
TOPIC: HUMAN EXCRECTORY SYSTEM

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the of the topic, students should be able to;

• Define excretion
• Identify the parts of excretion and their functions
• List the excretory products
• Explain the need for excretion
• Enumerate parts of the excretion system and their functions
• Describe the excretory process

Introduction
During the process of respiration, oxygen from the atmosphere is used in breaking down food substances in
our body to release useful energy and some waste products.
The waste products that are released during respiration and other activities of the body are carbon dioxide,
excess water, salts and urea.
These products are called excretory waste. It is poisonous and, therefore, must be removed from the body.

The process by which excretory waste is removed from the body is called excretion.
NB :It is important to note that feaces is not listed as excretory waste. Feaces consist of undigested food
materials from the digestive system, passed out in the form of semi-solids through the anus.
The process by which feaces is removed from the body is called defecation.

Different organs of the body are involved in excretion. All the organs involved in excretion constitute the
excretory system.

EXCRETION
Excretion is the process by which waste products of metabolism and other unused materials are eliminated
from the body of an organism. It is an essential process in all forms of life.
Excretion is necessary because if the metabolic waste is not removed, it may be toxic and harmful to the
body.

THE EXCRETORY ORGANS AND THEIR PRODUCT

EXCRETORY ORGAN EXCRETORY PRODUCT

Lungs Carbon dioxide, water vapour
Kidneys (urinary system) Urine, urea, water, mineral salts
Skin(sweat gland) Urea, water, salt.
Liver Bile pigment and bile salt.

ORGANS OF THE HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

The human excretory system consists of different organs of the body, which collectively ensure the removal
of different waste products. These organs are:
1. Kidney
2. Skin
3. Lungs
4. Liver

THE KIDNEY
Every human being has two kidneys located at the back of the abdomen with one on the left and the other on
the right. The kidneys are bean-shaped.
The kidney is connected to the body’s circulatory system. Blood carrying excretory products from all parts
of the body are purified in the kidney.
There are many excretory units in the kidney known as nephrons.

Each works in the same way. Blood reaching the kidney enters at high pressure. The protein and blood cells
are sieved out and retained.
Excess mineral salts, excess water as well as urea flow into the space in the tubule.
Some water and mineral salts are reabsorbed in the tubule. The liquid containing excess salts, excess water
and urea is passed into the bladder as urine.
Urine is passed out of the body from the bladder through the urethra.
THE SKIN
The human skin is made up of two layers:
a. The epidermis
b. The dermis
The epidermis is made up of the horny, granular and malpighian layers. These serve to protect the inner
structures.
The dermis are many structures including the sweat glands, the sweat ducts and the sweat pores.

HOW THE SKIN WORKS IN EXCRETION

The sweat gland collects excess water, excess salt and urea from the blood capillaries in the dermis to form a
salty liquid called sweat.
The sweat flows into the sweat duct and passes out through the sweat pores.
The passing out of sweat through the skin helps to control the temperature of the body. It causes cooling.
However, if the sweat dries on your skin, it may block the sweat pores and if bacteria settles on it, one may
have body odour. This is why you must wash your body regularly.
 THE LUNGS
The lungs are used for the removal of carbon (IV) oxide that results from cell respiration in the body.
Carbon (IV) oxide dissolves in the blood plasma and is carried to the lungs through the blood
vessels. The gas diffuses through the capillaries into the alveoli.
When contraction of the chest cavity takes place, carbon (IV) oxide flows from the alveolus to the
bronchioles, then to the bronchi and to the trachea and finally out through the nostrils
THE LIVER
The liver does not pass out any excretory waste directly but is involved in changing the chemical
composition of some substances that are harmful to the body into less or non-harmful forms.
The liver is thus involved in the following excretory functions:
1. Conversion of dead red blood cells into bile that is useful in digestion.
2. Conversion of excess amino acids into ammonia and consequently urea that can be easily removed
from the body through the kidney.
3. Conversion of poisonous alcohol, nicotine and pesticide to non-poisonous substances.

THE NEED FOR EXCRETION

Excretion is the removal of harmful waste products of metabolic activities from the human body.
If this process of excretion does not take place, waste accumulates in the body and may poison or
destroy the body.
A good example is when there is problem with the kidneys; if they fail to remove urine from the
body, excess salt, water and urea become retained in the blood.
This results in abnormal swelling of body parts that can lead to death if not properly managed
through the advanced process of dialysis or kidney transplant.
In either of the two treatment procedures, a lot of money is required and the victim suffers much
pain.

EVALUATION
1. Define excretion?
2. Parts of excretion and their function
3. Excretory production
4. Need for excretion
5. Enumerate parts of the excretion system and their functions
6. Describe the excretory process
7. Explain the need for excretion
8. Parts of excretion and their function.
 WEEK 4
TOPIC: SKELETAL AND MUSCULAR SYSTEM

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of this topic, the students should be able to;

• Identify the parts of the body responsible for movement

• Describe how bones are put together to function
• Discuss how muscles, together with bones, make movement possible
• Mention the components of the joints
• Describe the importance of movement to human beings

HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skeleton is the bony frame work of the body.
A system is a unit of living or non – living things that has different parts which work together to perform a
given function.
The skeletal system consists of different bones which work together to provide support and protection to the
body.
Functions of the skeleton
• It gives us shape
• It makes our body firm
• It gives us support
• It helps us in movement
• It protects the delicate parts of our body especially organs like the heart, brain, kidney and liver.
• Red blood cells are formed in the long bones.
Types of skeleton
There are three main types of skeleton;
1. Hydrostatic skeleton
2. Exoskeleton
3. Endoskeleton
Hydrostatic skeleton: This type of skeleton is mainly found in soft bodied animals. example – earthworm
Exoskeleton: This is found outside or on the external part of the animals such as snail, ants and insects.
Endoskeleton: This is the type found inside the body of some animals such as man, goat and cattle.

The skeletal system in mammals

The skeletal system in mammals is grouped into two major parts. They are;
a) The axial skeleton
b) The appendicular skeleton
Axial skeleton: This part is made up of the skull, vertebral column, backbone, ribs and sternum(breastbone).
Appendicular skeleton: This is made up of the limb girdles (pectoral and pelvic girdles) and the limbs (fore
limbs and hind limbs).
Parts of the body responsible for movement
There are three major parts responsible for movement. They are;
1. Bones
2. Joints
3. Muscles
Bone
The bone consists of living bone cells, protein fibres (collagen) and minerals, mainly calcium phosphate and
calcium carbonate. The bone also has a hard outer layer (shaft) and a hollow cavity filled with the bone marrow.
Joints
The point where two bones meet is called a joint. The presence of joints makes the bones flexible for
movement.
The joints allow a space between two bones. The space is filled with a fluid, which lubricates the bone – ends,
making them flexible for movement. The bones are held together by rope – like materials called ligament.
Joint could be moveable or immovable.
Types of joints
There are four main types of moveable joints which make for different levels of movement.
1. Ball and socket joint: These allow free rotation of the bones e.g. the hip bones.
 2. Pivot joint: This is found only in the neck bone. It allows the rotation of the head on the neck and also
nodding.

Hinge joint: This allows movement in one direction only e.g. elbow joint.
Gliding joint: This allows the sliding, twisting or turning of one bone over another e.g. joints

The immovable joints are joints that do not allow free movement. They are
a. Saturated joints of the skull whose serrated edges fit perfectly together on its own.
b. Fused joints in the sacral vertebral (lower abdominal region)
c. Bones bound tightly by ligaments as in the two halves of the pubic symphysis.
Muscles
Muscles are tissues in the human body which cover the skeleton(flesh). Muscle is made up of long thread –
like materials, which are arranged in bundles. It has the ability to contract (shorten) and relax when required.
Types of muscles
There are three types of muscles. They are
a. Voluntary or skeletal muscles: They are always attached to the skeleton hence the name because
their contraction and relaxation can be controlled at will. It makes up half of the entire body weight.
b. Smooth muscles: These are muscles found in the internal organs e.g. the digestive system and the
walls of the blood vessels.
c. Cardiac muscles: cardiac muscles are found in the heart. They are not under the control of will.
Functions of the muscles
1. It gives beauty to the body
2. It provides flesh that covers the bone
3. It gives shape to the body
4. Muscles help to move the bones of our body
How muscles act on bones to bring about movement
The contraction and relaxation of skeletal muscles bring about movement of the body. Skeletal muscles are
always in pairs. As one contracts, the other relaxes i.e. they are antagonistic to each other.
Activity
Consider the movement of the lower arm
Importance of movement to human beings
Human beings move in order to;
1. Obtain food
2. Find shelter and safety
3. Find mates
4. Work and earn a living
Bone injuries and diseases
1. Fracture
2. Spain
3. Dislocation
4. Strain
5. Arthritis
6. Osteoporosis
7. Rickets
EVALUATION

• Identify the parts of the body responsible for movement

• Describe how bones are put together to function
• Discuss how muscles, together with bones, make movement possible
• Name the components of the joints
• Describe the importance of movement to human beings.
 WEEK 5
TOPIC: SIMPLE MACHINE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of this topic, students should be able to;

1. Explain simple machine

2. Classify some machines into the different types of simple machines
3. Deduce the reason machines are never 100% efficient
4. State ways to care for simple machines

Understanding Simple Machines

Machines are tools that help people do work more easily. Work is done anytime a force is applied to move
an object. Skate boards, cars, bicycles, boats, shovels etc. are all machines.
Simple Machines are machines that gets the work done by reducing the size of the force needed.
How do Machines do Work
Machines make work easier by
1. Changing the size of the force needed or by
2. Changing the direction in which the force is applied

Classification of Simple Machines

There are seven types of simple machines
LEVER : This is a solid that rotates, or turns around a fixed point. This fixed point is called a fulcrum.
Examples includes Seasaws, wheelbarrows and tweezers.
There are three different types of levers
a) First Class Lever: The fulcrum is located in the middle between the load and effort. Examples includes
crowbars, scissors, pliers and seasaws.
b) Second Class Lever: The load is in the middle between the effort and fulcrum. Examples includes
wheelbarrows, bottle openners etc
c) Third Class Lever: The effort is in the middle while the load and fulcrum are at either end. Examples
tweezers,shovels and hammers
Pulleys: These are wheels and axles with a groove around the outsides. A pulley needs a chain,rope or belt
around the groove to make it do work.
Types of Pulleys
1. Moveable pulleys are attached to the loads. They move as the load moves
2. Fixed pulleys are attached to a wall, ceiling or other fixture. They do not move when in use

WHEEL AND AXLE: They act like a rotating collection of levers. The axle is like a fulcrum, the axle is
stucked rigidly to a large wheel. Fan blades are attached to the wheel, when the axle turns, the fan blades
spin. Examples bicycle, door knobs, roller coaster etc
INCLINED PLANES: This is a flat surface with one end propped up higher than the other, like a long
piece of wood resting on a ledge. A hill and a flight of stairs are also inclined planes.

SCREW: This is an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder It is used to raise and lower weights and hold
objects together. Examples include drills, jar lids, nuts and bolts.
WEDGES: These are two inclined planes that are joined together They are used to split or hold objects.
Example are axe blades, nails,scissors

GEARS: The principle of a gear is similar to that of a screw. Gears are made up of two wheels that have
teeth. One wheel called the driving wheel drives the other wheel called the driven wheel. The teeth of the
two wheels are made to interlock such that on the application of effort to the driving wheel, the driven wheel
rotates simultaneously. This is how vehicles move. Thus a gear transfers energy from the engine to the
driving wheel of a vehicle, making it rotate thereby causing the vehicle to move
 Uses of Simple Machines
❖ Applying force at convenient point. Instead of applying force directly to the wheels of a bicycle, it is
easier and more convenient to apply it to the pedals.
❖ Applying force at convenient direction. It is difficult to lift a bucket full of water directly, but the
task becomes very easy if the force is applied in downward direction using a pulley.
❖ By applying small effort to lift large loads. In such case machine is said to be used as force
multiplier. A screw jack used to lift a car or a truck.
❖ To change speed of motion of a body. In such case machine is said to be used as speed multiplier.
Gears in automobile are used to change the speed of the automobile.

Mechanical Advantage
The ratio of load (L) to overcome to the magnitude of the effort (E)
is called a mechanical advantage.
Load (L):
* A resistive force to be overcome by a machine is called a load. Its
S.I. unit is newton (N)
Effort (E):
* An external force applied to a simple machine to overcome a load is
called an effort. Its S.I. unit is newton (N)
Mathematically M.A = load OR effort arm
effort load arm

No units are used to express mechanical advantage because it is a ratio. (The units cancel out).

Example 1: A wheelbarrow has an effort arm 120 cm long and a load arm 40 cm long. What is its
mechanical advantage?
• Given: effort arm = 120 cm
• load arm = 40 cm
 • Required: mechanical advantage (MA)
Analysis: MA = effort arm
load arm
• Solution: MA = 120
40
MA = 3
Statement: This wheelbarrow has a mechanical advantage of 3.

Efficiency of a Simple Machine

The efficiency of a machine is expressed as the ratio of energy output to the energy input. The efficiency is
always expressed in percentage.
Efficiency = energy output ×100
energy input
The efficiency of a machine is always less than 100%. this is because the energy input cannot be completely
utilised. This is to say that it is not all the energy put into a machine that is doing useful work.

Example 1: What is the efficiency of a machine with the energy input of 60N and energy output of 40N.
Solution
Given; energy input= 60N
energy output=40N
Required: Efficiency = energy output ×100
energy input
= 40 ×100
60
=66.6%

CLASS WORK
PROJECT CLASS WORK

HOMEWORK

• What five ways can you care for simple machines.

EVALUATION

1. Explain simple machine

2. Classify some machines into the different types of simple machines
3. Deduce the reason machines are never 100% efficient
4. state ways to care for simple machines.
 WEEK 7
TOPIC: YOU AND ENERGY: ENERGY, WORK AND POWER.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of the topic, students should be able to ;

▪ Explain the terms – energy , work and power

▪ Use the formula: power = workdone
time
▪ Calculate work, kinetic and potential energy and power
▪ Discuss energy transfer that occurs when work is done

DEFINITION AND FORMULA OF WORK

Work is done when a force moves a body via a distance (displacement) in the direction of the force.
Work is the product of force and the distance moved by the force.
(Force is that which changes a body's state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line)
It is important to note that the force and the distance must be in the same direction.
The quantity of work done is always equal to the quantity of energy put in.
Mathematically,
Work (w) = Force (f) X distance (d)
w = f X d = fd …………….(1)
Since force (f) = mass (m) X acceleration (a)
f = ma …………………(2)
Substituting equation 2 in equation 1
work = mass X acceleration X distance
W=mXaXd
SI UNIT FOR WORK
Mass is in kilogram (Kg),
Acceleration in metre per seconds (m/s2 or ms-2) and Distance in metre.
Work is expressed in Joules (J).
WORK DONE AGAINST GRAVITY
Work is done against gravity (g) when a mass (m) is lifted from the ground level to a vertical distance (h)
above the ground.
Here, W = mgh
Note: mg = weight of the object x gravity = force (f)
EXERCISE EXAMPLES
1. Calculate the work done when a mass of 6.00kg is lifted through a vertical height of 3.0m above the
ground.
(Take acceleration due to gravity (g) = 10ms-2)
Solution:
Work = mass X acceleration due to gravity X height
W = mgh
W = 6.00kg X 10ms-2 X 3.0m
W = 180J

PROJECT CLASS WORK

WORK DONE AGAINST FRICTION

Work is done against frictional forces when a force (f) pushes or pulls a body at a certain distance (d).
Here, Work = force X distance W = fd

Example:
Calculate the work done when a box is pulled steadily 3.5m against a frictional force of 5N.
Solution:
Work = force X distance
W = 5N X 3.5m = 17.5J

WORK DONE BY A FALLING BODY

A body falling freely under gravity is worked upon by gravitational force.
Example:
If a body of mass 2.5kg falls through a vertical height of 3.0m. Calculate the work done by gravity on the
body.
Solution:
Work = mass X acceleration due to gravity X height
W = 2.5kg X 10ms-2 X 3.0m
W = 75J

WORK DONE AGAINST AN ELASTIC BODY

Work is done against an elastic body when force is applied to stretch or compress it to a certain distance.

Example:
Calculate the work done in stretching a strip of rubber and extending it to 2.0m by applying force of 1.5N
Solution:
Work = force X displacement
W = 1.5N X 2.0m
W = 3.0J

ENERGY
Energy is defined as the ability to do work.
The SI unit of energy is joules (J), named after the scientist P. Joules.
For anything to do work, it must possess energy.
There are different types of energy namely:
a. Mechanical energy (Potential and Kinetic Energy)
b. Electrical energy
c. Chemical energy
d. Atomic or nuclear energy
e. Light or radiant energy
f. Solar energy
g. Heat or thermal energy

POTENTIAL ENERGY AND KINETIC ENERGY

Potential Energy (P.E)

This is stored energy. It is also defined as the energy possessed by a body as a result of its position or state.
Examples of potential energy include:
a. A book/stone resting on a table, has gravitational potential energy
b. Petrol, wood and batteries, possess chemical potential energy
c. A magnet at rest in a magnetic field possesses magnetic potential energy.
d. An extended strip of rubber has elastic potential energy.

Kinetic Energy (K.E)

Kinetic energy is the energy exhibited by a moving body.
Examples of kinetic energy include:
a. A falling mango fruit
b. A moving aeroplane
c. Moving wind
d. Slowing electrical charges
e. An athlete in motion
 f. A fired bullet

CALCULATIONS INVOLVING POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGY

Gravitational potential energy (Egp) is calculated by multiplying the weight of an object by its vertical height
above ground level.
Egp = weight X height
Egp = mass (m) X acceleration due to gravity (g) X height (h)
Egp = mgh

Example:
Calculate the gravitational potential energy (Egp) of a mass of 10.0kg placed 5.0m above the ground level.
(Take g = 9.81ms-2)
Solution
Egp = mgh
Egp = 10kg X 9.81ms-2 X 5m
Egp = 490.5J

Kinetic energy (K.E) is obtained using the following formula:

K.E. = ½ mv2
Where m = mass (kg) of the moving object
V = velocity (ms-1) of the object
Example: Calculate the K.E. of a 5.3kg mass, moving at a constant velocity of 10ms-1.
Solution: K.E. = ½ mv2
K.E. = ½ X 5.3kg X (10ms-1)2
K.E. = 265J

POWER
Power is defined as the rate at which work is done.
Mathematically, Power (p) = Work done
Time
SI unit for power
If work is in joules and time in seconds, then, power is measured in watts.
Other units of power are:
Kilowatts (kW), megawatt (mW), and horsepower (h.p)

Examples:
1. Calculate the power of a moving car if it overcomes a retarding force of 450N and moves at a
constant speed of 25m/s.
Solution
Force = 450N Distance = 25m Time = 1 second
Power = work = force X distance
time time
Power = 450N X 25m = 11250watts
1s
Since 1000W = 1kW; 11250W = 11.25kW

2. If a palm wine tapper has a mass of 70.0kg and climbs a palm tree of 20.0m in 20 seconds, calculate his
power. (Take g = 10ms-2)
Solution:
Power = work = mgh
time t
Power = 70.0kg X 10ms-2 X 20.0m
20s
Power = 700W
ENERGY TRANSFERRED WHEN WORK IS DONE
When an object is placed on a table, it possesses gravitational potential energy.
If the object is pushed over and it falls on a glassware on the floor, it will shatter the glassware as a result of
its kinetic energy.
In addition, if a battery is properly connected via electrical conductors (wires), it can start a car because the
chemical potential energy had been changed to electrical energy.
Generally, whenever there is energy transfer or transformation, work is always done.

EVALUATION
▪ Explain the terms – energy , work and power
▪ Solve calculations under energy, work and power
▪ If a palm wine tapper has a mass of 70.0kg and climbs a palm tree of 20.0m in 20 seconds, calculate
his power. (Take g = 10ms-2)
▪ Calculate work, kinetic and potential energy and power
▪ Discuss energy transfer that occurs when work is done
 WEEK 8
TOPIC: RUSTING.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of the topic, students should be able to;
1. Explain the concept of rusting
2. Relate to the conditions necessary for rusting to occur
3. Describe the methods of preventing rusting
4. Associate rusting to combustion and respiration

When iron is exposed to air and moisture, its surface gradually corrodes and converts into a brown mass.
This brown mass is called rust and this phenomenon is known as rusting.
The corrosion of metals results from the combined action of oxygen and water. The most important example
of metallic corrosion is that of iron.
The corrosion of iron is commonly known as rusting.

When iron is exposed to damp air, it reacts with oxygen and water to form a reddish-brown coating of an
iron oxide called hydrated iron (III) oxide. This formation of iron (III) oxide is called rusting. This process
occurs naturally.

The chemical reaction in which iron (Fe) combines with oxygen (O2) and water to form rust.
The equation for this reaction is: 4Fe+3O2+x.H2O→2Fe2O3.xH2O

Iron is of high use and very important to man. Man cannot afford to allow rust to damage and decay away
our iron.

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR RUSTING TO OCCUR

Rusting is a natural process, but we must have to prevent moist air and water from getting on to the surface
of the metals.
1. The presence of water (moisture) and oxygen is essential for the rusting of iron.
2. Impurities in the iron, the presence of water vapour, acids, salts and carbon dioxide hastens rusting.
3. Pure iron do not rust in dry and carbon dioxide free air. It does not rust in pure water, free from
dissolved salts.
METHODS OF PREVENTING RUSTING
There are several ways of preventing the rusting of iron.
 1. Painting – Iron parts installed in vehicles, machinery and buildings are often protected with paint.
Tar which is cheaper and last longer is frequently used instead of paint on those parts which we do not see,
such as the bottom of ship.
2. Greasing – Iron articles are often greased to stop them from rusting.
3. Electroplating – iron is coated by other metals which do not rust. Examples of metals that do not rust
copper, tin, chromium, gold, silver. Chromium is used for plating bicycle parts.
4. Galvanizing – Here, Iron is protected by a coating of zinc.
The sheet of iron is dipped into melted zinc, which sticks to the iron, so that when the iron is taken out and
allowed to cool, it is coated with a thin layer of zinc.
Galvanized iron is used for making roofing metal, baths and buckets.
5. Enamel – used in making cooking utensils, is often coated with enamel.
Enamel is hard, impervious to air and water and does not react with food.

RUSTING, BURNING (COMBUSTION) AND RESPIRATION

Respiration is the process of using oxygen to convert glucose (simple sugars) into energy.
Rusting is the oxidation of metal, causing it to break down.
Combustion is when something is on fire. CO2 is always a by-product.

SIMILARITIES AMONG RUSTING, BURNING AND RESPIRATION

1. Rusting, combustion and respiration are all chemical change.

2. All of rusting, burning and respiration involves release of heat to the atmosphere (endothermic reaction).
3. Rusting, combustion and respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen.

EVALUATION
1 Explain the concept of rusting
2. Relate to the conditions necessary for rusting to occur
3. Describe the methods of preventing rusting
4. Associate rusting to combustion and respiration