UNIT-II

BASIC SYSTEM
MODELLING
SYSTEM MODELLING
System modeling is the process of developing abstract models of a
system, with each model presenting a different view or perspective of
that system.

System modeling has generally come to mean representing the system

using some kind of graphical notation, which is now almost always
based on notations in the Unified Modeling Language (UML).

It is also possible to develop formal (mathematical) models of a

system, usually as a detailed system specification.
SYSTEM MODELLING
Models of the existing system are used during requirements
engineering.
They help clarify what the existing system does and can be used as a
basis for discussing its strengths and weaknesses.
These then lead to requirements for the new system.
Engineers use these models to discuss design proposals and to
document the system for implementation.
In a model-driven engineering process, it is possible to generate a
complete or partial system implementation from the system model.
 Develop different models to represent the system from different
perspectives

For example:
[Link] external perspective, where you model the context or environment of
the system.
[Link] interaction perspective where you model the interactions between a
system and its environment or between the components of a system.
3.A structural perspective, where you model the organization of a system
or the structure of the data that is processed by the system.
4.A behavioral perspective, where you model the dynamic behavior of the
system and how it responds to events.
Mathematical Model:
Mathematical Model is the one in which symbols and logic constitute
the model.
The symbol used can be a language or a mathematical notation.

Physical Model:
Physical model is a smaller or larger physical copy of an object.
The object being modeled may be small (for example, an atom) or
large(for example, the Solar System).
Static Vs. Dynamic Models
Static Model: is the one which describes relationships that do not
change with respect to time.
An architectural model of a house is a static physical model.
An equation relating the lengths and weights on each side of a
playground variation is a static mathematical model.
Dynamic Model: is the one which describes time-varying
relationships.
A wind tunnel is a dynamic physical model.
The equations of motion of the planets around the sun constitute a
dynamic mathematical model of the solar system.
Analytical Vs. Numerical
Mathematical Models
Analytical Model: is the one which is solved by using the deductive
reasoning (Logical process)of mathematical theory.

Numerical Model: is the one which is solved by applying

computational procedures.
Linear Vs. Nonlinear
Mathematical Models
Linear Model: is the one which describes relationships in linear form.

Nonlinear Model: is the one which describes relationships in nonlinear

form.
Stable Or Unstable
Mathematical Models
Stable Model: is the one which tends to return to its initial condition
after being disturbed.

Like a simple pendulum.

Unstable Model: is the one which may or may not come back to its
initial condition after being disturbed.
Modelling is the process of representing a model which includes its
construction and working. This model is similar to a real system, which
helps the analyst predict the effect of changes to the system.
◦ In other words, modelling is creating a model which represents a system
including their properties. It is an act of building a model.

Simulation of a system is the operation of a model in terms of time or

space, which helps analyze the performance of an existing or a proposed
system.
◦ In other words, simulation is the process of using a model to study the
performance of a system. It is an act of using a model for simulation.
Developing Simulation
Models
Simulation models consist of the following components: system entities,
input variables, performance measures, and functional relationships.
Following are the steps to develop a simulation model.
Step 1 − Identify the problem with an existing system or set
requirements of a proposed system.
Step 2 − Design the problem while taking care of the existing system
factors and limitations.
Step 3 − Collect and start processing the system data, observing its
performance and result.
Step 4 − Develop the model using network diagrams and verify it using
various verifications techniques.
Developing Simulation
Models
Step 5 − Validate the model by comparing its performance under various
conditions with the real system.
Step 6 − Create a document of the model for future use, which includes
objectives, assumptions, input variables and performance in detail.
Step 7 − Select an appropriate experimental design as per requirement.
Step 8 − Induce experimental conditions on the model and observe the
result.
The steps to perform
simulation analysis
Step 1 − Prepare a problem statement.
Step 2 − Choose input variables and create entities for the simulation
process. There are two types of variables - decision variables and
uncontrollable variables. Decision variables are controlled by the
programmer, whereas uncontrollable variables are the random variables.
Step 3 − Create constraints on the decision variables by assigning it to
the simulation process.
Step 4 − Determine the output variables.
Step 5 − Collect data from the real-life system to input into the
simulation.
The steps to perform
simulation analysis
Step 6 − Develop a flowchart showing the progress of the simulation
process.
Step 7 − Choose an appropriate simulation software to run the model.
Step 8 − Verify the simulation model by comparing its result with the
real-time system.
Step 9 − Perform an experiment on the model by changing the variable
values to find the best solution.
Step 10 − Finally, apply these results into the real-time system.
The advantages of using
Modelling and Simulation
Easy to understand − Allows to understand how the system really
operates without working on real-time systems.
Easy to test − Allows to make changes into the system and their
effect on the output without working on real-time systems.
Easy to upgrade − Allows to determine the system requirements by
applying different configurations.
Easy to identifying constraints − Allows to perform bottleneck
analysis that causes delay in the work process, information, etc.
Easy to diagnose problems − Certain systems are so complex that it
is not easy to understand their interaction at a time.
The disadvantages of using
Modelling and Simulation
Designing a model is an art which requires domain knowledge,
training and experience.
Operations are performed on the system using random number, hence
difficult to predict the result.
Simulation requires manpower and it is a time-consuming process.
Simulation results are difficult to translate. It requires experts to
understand.
Simulation process is expensive.
Modelling & Simulation ─
Application Areas
Modelling & Simulation can be applied to the following areas − Military
applications, training & support, designing semiconductors,
telecommunications, civil engineering designs & presentations, and
E-business models.

Additionally, it is used to study the internal structure of a complex

system such as the biological system. It is used while optimizing the
system design such as routing algorithm, assembly line, etc. It is used to
test new designs and policies. It is used to verify analytic solutions.
Model Development
Model development involves the definition of model objectives,
conceptualization of the problem, translation into a computational model, and
model testing, revision, and application.
Introduction to Validation and
Verification
One of the most difficult problems facing the simulation analyst is
determining whether a simulation model is an accurate representation
of the actual system being studied ( i.e., whether the model is valid).
If the simulation model is not valid, then any conclusions derived
from it is of virtually no value.
Validation and verification are two of the most important steps in
any simulation project.
Validation is the process of determining whether the conceptual

model is an accurate representation of the actual system being analyzed.

Validation deals with building the right model.

Verification the process of comparing two or more results to ensure

its accuracy. In other word process of determining whether a simulation
computer program works as intended
Validation and verification
Model Development Process
Modelling process includes the following steps.
Step 1 − Examine the problem. In this stage, we must understand the
problem and choose its classification accordingly, such as deterministic
Step 2 − Design a model. In this stage, we have to perform the following
simple tasks which help us design a model −

Collect data as per the system behavior and future requirements.

Analyze the system features, its assumptions and necessary actions to be
taken to make the model successful.
Determine the variable names, functions, its units, relationships, and their
applications used in the model.
Solve the model using a suitable technique and verify the result using
verification methods. Next, validate the result.
Prepare a report which includes results, interpretations, conclusion, and
suggestions.
Step 3 − Provide recommendations after completing the entire process
related to the model. It includes investment, resources, algorithms,
techniques, etc.
 Verification & Validation
Techniques
There are various techniques used to perform Verification & Validation of
Simulation Model. Following are some of the common techniques −
Techniques to Perform Verification of Simulation Model
By using programming skills to write and debug the program in sub-programs.
By using “Structured Walk-through” policy in which more than one person is to
read the program.
By tracing the intermediate results and comparing them with observed outcomes.
By checking the simulation model output using various input combinations.
By comparing final simulation result with analytic results.
Techniques to Perform Validation
of Simulation Model
Step 1 − Design a model with high validity. This can be achieved using
the following steps −
The model must be discussed with the system experts while designing.
The model must interact with the client throughout the process.
The output must supervised by system experts.
Step 2 − Test the model at assumptions data. This can be achieved by
applying the assumption data into the model and testing it quantitatively.
Sensitive analysis can also be performed to observe the effect of change
in the result when significant changes are made in the input data.
Techniques to Perform
Validation of Simulation
Model
Step 3 − Determine the representative output of the Simulation model.
This can be achieved using the following steps −

Determine how close is the simulation output with the real system
output.

Comparison can be performed using the Turing Test. It presents the data
in the system format, which can be explained by experts only.

Statistical method can be used for compare the model output with the
real system output.
Mathematical Modelling
Mathematical modelling is an activity in which we make model to
describe the behaviour of various phenomenal activities of our
interest in many ways using words, drawings or sketches, computer
programs, mathematical formulae etc…

Having widespread applications in all branches of

Science and Engineering & Technology, Biology,
Medicine and several other interdisciplinary areas.
WHY MATHEMATICAL
MODEL IS
NECESSARY?
To perform experiments and to solve real world problems which
may be risky and expensive or time consuming.
Emerged as a powerful, indispensable tool for studying a variety
of problems in scientific research, product and process
development and manufacturing.
Improves the quality of work and reduced changes, errors and
rework.

However, mathematical model is only a complement but does

not replace theory and experimentation in scientific research.
USE OF MATHEMATICAL
MODEL
Solves the real world problems and has become wide spread due to
increasing computation power and computing methods.

Facilitated to handle large scale and complicated problems.

Some areas where mathematical models are highly used are : Climate
modelling, Aerospace Science, Space Technology, Manufacturing and
Design, Seismology, Environment, Economics, Material Research,
Water Resource, Drug Design, Populations Dynamics, Combat and
War related problems, Medicine, Biology etc.
TYPES OF
MATHEMATICAL
PROCESS
Translational mechanics and Rotational mechanics
Fluid system modelling
Cylinder Parameters
A hydraulic cylinder transfers energy by converting the flow rate and
pressure into the force and velocity.
The velocity and the force from a double-acting double-rod cylinder can
be determined using the following equations:
The hydraulic stiffness, kh , of the cylinder plays an important role in the
dynamic performance of a hydraulic system. It is a function of fluid bulk
modulus (β ), piston areas (A1, A2), cylinder chamber volumes (V1, V2),
and the volume of hydraulic hoses connected to both chambers (VL1,
VL2). For a doubleacting single-rod cylinder, the stiffness on both sides
of the piston acts in parallel. The total stiffness of the cylinder is given
by the following equation:
 Fields of Application
Two main fields of application,

Validation of specifications

Verification of Designs

Modelling & Simulation – Closely linked to design processes.

Divided in accordance with design directions,

Bottom – Up Design

Top- Down Design

Bottom – Up Design Process
Top- Down Design Process
Relationship of design strategies to modelling
 Modelling for Specification

Purpose of Specification - Describe desired behaviour of system to be

developed and associated boundary conditions.

First, it raises question of its validity

Pure behavioral Modelling

May not anticipate the implementation

 Modelling for Design

Applies particularly in micro-electronics

A manufacturing run typically last 6-12 weeks and is associated with

significant costs repairs to manufactured chips are more or less impossible

under such boundary conditions one cannot afford to iterate the

manufacturing process to rectify design errors

necessary to iterate the manufacturing process to rectify design errors.

manufacture with fundamentally error free design

 Model Development

Introduction:

An overview of the most up to date methods for model development in

electronics and mechanics looking at both the common ground and

differences.

we can make an initial classification by asking whether the model describes

the structure or the behaviour of the system

 Structural Modelling
A structured model can be characterised on the basis of following terms
❑ Hierarchy

❑ Modularity

❑ Regularity

❑ Locality

Models are considered in the form of

Circuit diagrams

State graphs

Multi-body diagrams

Finite elements
 Physical Modelling
Laws of physics are used to describe the behaviour and the inner action
mechanism of a system

Depending upon suitability and efficiency and the establishment of causes

and effect chains

Requires comprehensive understanding of a system and remains an

engineering task

Computer support for this form of modelling is at best rudimentary

Perspectives of modelling

Resulting Equations
 Experimental Modelling
Development of the mathematical models of dynamic systems

Development of the mathematical models of dynamic systems

Neither the underlying physics nor internal life of system need necessarily
play a role in model generation

In contrast to physical modelling can be wholly or partially automated

The simplest method of incorporating measured data is by formulation

of table models that leads to stopped or piece wise linear characteristics .
System Identification Sequence
Comparison Between Real System & Model
 Model Verification
Answers the question of - whether implemented model reflects the
conceptual model within specific boundaries of accuracy

Verification on basis of,

❑ Implementation Methodology
❑ Plausibility test
❑ alternative models
❑ Direct validation based upon measured data
❑ Validation based upon system identification
❑ Validation based upon the model distortion approach
❑ Validation based upon a sensitivity analysis
❑ Validation upon hierarchy model
❑ Validation upon inverse models
Verification on the basis of the implementation
methodology
The most direct form of verification takes place as early as implementation stage and
aims to occur at all this requires intervention into methodology of model implementation
few keywords are

Modular modelling

Object oriented modelling

Chief modular principle

Plausibility tests
Plausibility test can also make a contribution to verification this is particularly true if
they can be performed by means of simple manual calculations they are based upon
analytical considerations or the result of an initial simulation

Causality:

The cause should precede effect in reality and in the model any deviation
from this principle indicates serious deficits in the model

Balance principle:

The principle of the conservation of energy and matter apply not only to
physical reality but also for model itself
Verification on basis of alternative model
There are often several methods or tools available for modelling and subsequent
simulation if two approaches are independent of each other in terms of methodology and
realisation then they can be used for mutual verification this arises because of the
probability of different errors producing the same effect falls as the number of
independent simulation experiments rises still simpler is the case when an approach has
already been verified

We can use a logic simulator for the simulation of digital circuits or when considering
the underlying transistor circuit a circuit simulator can also be used in principle both
simulator giving greater accuracy at a higher cost as a result of its analogue
consideration method
Verification based upon visual inspection & animation
• Another important verification method is visual inspection of the sequence of simulation
using a debugger or comparable tool

• Simulator for hardware description languages often the use of such tools
other form of representation by marks in Petri nets or the current state is state diagram

• It is not only used for evaluation of simulation process but also for
representation of simulation results

• In mechanical behaviour case this is often not possible to evaluate and

display results in such case animation procedure facilities better results
Verification of run time behaviour
Occasionally tools are used that identify those parts of a model that contribute significantly to
the running time.

The classic approach to this is to determine the instruction currently being processed at
regular intervals.

It allows us to obtain statistical information on frequency of execution of instructions and

modules.

Information extracted can be used to selectively accelerate a model, which is of decisive

importance.
Model Validation
Validity of model is partially dependent upon desired applications
 Model simplification
In some cases the precession of one some(sub)models is greater than is necessary for
the purpose of simulation this is not critical as long as the efficiency of the simulation is not
a problem
However if simulation time becomes too great then it makes sense to consider the
simplification of models
According to Ziegler the following strategies can be down upon to achieve the
simplification of basic model
Omission of components variables and interaction rules
Replacement of deterministic description by stochastic descriptions
Grouping of components into blocks and combining the associated variables
 Model simplification
Various types of model simulation used are general as follows

❑ Circuit simulation
❑ Logic simulation
❑ Multi-body simulation
❑ Block diagram simulation
❑ Finite element simulation
❑ Software simulation
 Model simplification

Circuit simulator Circuits are made of electronic components e.g. transistors

, resistor, capacitors, coils ,etc and also analogue hardware
description languages

Logic simulator Logi gates: AND ,OR,NAND,NOR,XOR,etc plus digital

hardware description languages

Block diagram Block diagram control technology

simulator
Multi-body Bodies with mass and Inertia
simulator moments,joints,springs,dampers,actuators,[Link]

Finite element Finite elements for description of a mechanical continuum

simulator
Software simulator Programs in the assembler and higher programming
languages.
 Design of mixed systems
Majority of the technical systems are mixed i.e., they incorporate the
components from various fields such as electronics, mechanics, software and
others domains.

This raises significant design problems because hitherto design methodologies

and the associated design tools have usually developed for the single field only.

This means overall function of the system cannot be investigated until the
prototype construction phase.
Levels of abstraction for electronic & mechanical
models
 Design of mixed systems - Analogies
Analogies on the level of electronic components and mechanical bodies
represent the predominant theme running through the joint consideration of
electronics and mechanics.

By this we can describe the electronics and mechanics using equations that
have structures.
Mechanical system and two analogue circuits
 MODEL TRANSFORMATION
Introduction:
In principle the basic simulator should be sought out on the basics of the focal point of
the desired investigation.

Basics simulators are

◦ Circuit simulator

◦ Logic or petri simulator

◦ Multi-body simulator

◦ Finite element simulator

 Circuit simulation
In circuit simulation the formation of transformed models chemically takes place in the
hard ware description languages.

This approach is the main theme of the present work and will be described
comprehensively in the following chapters.

Alternatively it is possible to draw up equivalent circuit diagram for mechanical

component.

We can differentiate two possibilities here.

Firstly we can use analogies to associate electronic components with basic mechanical
elements
 LOGIC/ PETRI NET SIMULATION
Petri nets-prediction/transition networks (Pr/T) are often used for modelling of
software and/or a digital electronics; they permit a system description on a very
abstract level in which the use of hierarchies permits particularly compact
representations.

The strength of Pr/T network lies in effective consideration of parallel process .

Petri net simulation and logic simulation are not very different from each other,
which means that event portrayed that could well be achieved on basis of
digital hardware description languages.
 MULTI-BODY SIMULATION
In this method two approaches are used
◦ Language approach

◦ Object-oriented approach

Firstly equations of electronics were obtained using Lagrange principles that

they can be seamlessly incorporated into a multi body simulator based on
Lagrange principle.

The other method is based on objected oriented thus, allowing the

non-mechanical components to be modelled more or less independently of
the system as whole.
 FINITE ELEMENT SIMULATION
One possibility of the system simulation using a FE simulator is to fuse the
equation system of electronics together with the equation system of finite
elements. the resulting equation sought-after unknown from electronics and
mechanics. The complete system can be solved using a standard solver.

Domain-independent description forms:

Bond graphs

Block diagrams

Modelling language or physical systems

Evaluation of domain-independent description forms

Domain-independent description forms
Bond Graphs
◦ The bond graph approach fundamentally lies upon the same principle as the
analogies in the electronics and mechanics. However, current were initial with
forces/moments and voltages with velocities, so that an analogy in the form of
an equivalent circuit has the same structure as the original system.
 Domain-independent description forms
Block diagram
Often used in control technology and like bond graphs, represents a form of structural
modelling this type of representation primarily show the structure of the equations
whereas the structure of the systems tends to be found indirectly from structure of
equation system.
It includes blocks and directional connections between blocks. It describes signals which
converted into other signals by blocks.
Domain-independent description forms
 Domain-independent description forms
Block diagram

From the above figure , block diagrams and equations are described:

I1=U1/R1, i2=U2/R2

IL=UL/L1 UC=IC/C1

U1-U0-UC, U2=UC, UL=U1+U2

Io=i1+Il, Ic=i 1-i2

Domain-independent description forms
Modelling languages for physical systems:
Modelling languages
ACSL
DSL
Dymola
Modelica
All these languages supports the description of physical systems. Modelica -most
probably used because it includes up-to-date results . It is specifically developed
in-order to support the exchange of models deployment of libraries .It does not insist
on the casual modelling ,in which cause and effect of every component is to be
derived before simulation . It supports the description of continuous systems ,can be
calculated basis of differential- algebraic equation systems (DAE).
Both the structured and behaviour modelling is possible prominent feature for
Modelica is object orientation
Simulator Coupling
The option of a simulator coupling takes the problem highlighted in the domain
description in straight forward manner.

Appropriate simulators are already available for various domains in the system and in
ideal case these would only have to exchange the current simulation result.

The use of simulator coupling can protect the investments in the model and facilitate
the use of models in available simulator field.

The coupled simulator forms very intricate software package, which is difficult to get
to groups with due to simulate coupling the difference in analogue electronics ,
mechanics , diff equations are solved in both the cases
SIMULATOR BACK PLANE: