01 YOUR PROFESSOR
02 COURSE MODULE 1
03 COURSE MODULE 2
04 COURSE MODULE 3
05
01 YOUR PROFESSOR
COURSE MODULE 1
Objectives:
02
1. Familiarize with the parts
of alternator machines
2. Identify the components
of the EMF Equation
3. Solve sample problems
Dealing with EMF
Equation of an alternator
and Voltage Regulation
01 COURSE OBJECTIVES
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01 is madeCOURSE
In a gasoline- or diesel-powered car, the charging system OBJECTIVES
up of three major components:
the battery, the voltage regulator and an alternator. The alternator works with the battery to
generate power for the electrical components of a vehicle, like the interior and exterior lights and
the instrument panel. An alternator gets its name from the term alternating current (AC).
Alternators are typically found near the front of the engine and are driven by the crankshaft,
which converts the pistons' up-and-down movement into circular movement. Some early model
vehicles used a separate drive belt from the crankshaft pulley to the alternator pulley, but most
cars today have a serpentine belt, or one belt that drives all components that rely on crankshaft
power.
Most alternators are mounted using brackets that bolt to a specific point on the engine. One of
the brackets is usually a fixed point, while the other is adjustable to tighten the drive belt.
Alternators produce AC power through electromagnetism formed through the stator and rotor
relationship (more on that later). The electricity is channeled into the battery, providing voltage to
run the various electrical systems.
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If your car has a bad
alternator, you can
still drive it; however,
it's best not to.
BACHTUB
DMITRII/SHUTTERSTOCK
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For the most part, alternators are relatively small and lightweight. Roughly the size of a
coconut, the alternators found in most passenger cars and light trucks (including most
hybrids) are constructed using an aluminum outer housing because the lightweight metal
does not magnetize. This is important since aluminum dissipates the tremendous heat
generated by producing the electrical power and since the rotor assembly produces a
magnetic field.
If you closely inspect an alternator, you'll find it has vents on both its front and back. Again,
this aids in heat dissipation. A drive pulley is attached to the rotor shaft on the front of the
alternator. When the engine is running, the crankshaft turns the drive belt, which in turn spins
the pulley on the rotor shaft. In essence, the alternator transfers the mechanical energy from
the engine into electrical power for the car's accessories.
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On the back side of the alternator, you'll find several terminals (or connecting points in
an electrical circuit). The most common terminals include:
•S terminal: Senses battery voltage
•IG terminal: Ignition switch that turns the voltage regulator on
•L terminal: Closes the circuit to the warning lamp
•B terminal: Main alternator output terminal (connected to the battery)
•F terminal: Full-field bypass for regulator
Cooling is essential to an alternator's efficiency. It's easy to spot an older unit by the external
fan blades found on the rotor shaft behind the pulley. Modern alternators have cooling
fans inside the aluminum housing. These fans operate the same way, using mechanical power
from the spinning rotor shaft.
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As we start to disassemble the alternator, we find the diode rectifier (or rectifier bridge),
the voltage regulator, slip rings and brushes. The regulator distributes the power the
alternator creates, and it controls the output of power to the battery. The rectifier bridge
converts the power, while the brushes and slip rings help conduct current to the rotor field
winding or wire field.
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In alternators, a rotating magnet, called the rotor turns within a01
stationary set ofCOURSE
conductorsOBJECTIVES
wound in coils on an iron
core, called the stator. The field cuts across the conductors, generating an induced EMF (electromotive force), as the
mechanical input causes the rotor to turn.
The rotating magnetic field induces an A.C. voltage in the stator windings. Often there are three sets of stator windings,
physically offset so that the rotating magnetic field produces a three phase current, displaced by one-third of a period
with respect to each other.
The rotor's magnetic field may be produced by induction (as in a "brushless" alternator), by permanent magnets (as in
very small machines), or by a rotor winding energized with direct current through slip rings and brushes. The rotor's
magnetic field may even be provided by stationary field winding, with moving poles in the rotor. Permanent magnet
machines avoid the loss due to magnetizing current in the rotor, but are restricted in size, due to the cost of the magnet
material. Since the permanent magnet field is constant, the terminal voltage varies directly with the speed of the
generator.
An automatic voltage control device controls the field current to keep output voltage constant. If the output voltage from
the stationary armature coils drops due to an increase in demand, more current is fed into the rotating field coils through
the voltage regulator (VR). This increases the magnetic field around the field coils which induces a greater voltage in the
armature coils. Thus, the output voltage is brought back up to its original value.
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According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic, induced emf is generated
01 whenOBJECTIVES
COURSE a coil is rotated in any
magnetic field. The magnitude of the induced emf in the coil rotating in a magnetic field in given as:
emf (e) = B l v N sin θ
Where,
e = induced emf in volt.
B = Magnetic field flux density, Wb/m2
l = length of the wire in the coil.
v = Velocity of rotation
N = Number of turns in the coils.
Since the coil has two sides (Fig. 1): Fig. 1 Two sides of coil in an alternator
Total emf generated e = 2 B l v N sin θ
Since the angular velocity of the spinning coil is ω = v/r and in this case r = W/2, then v = ωW/2 . ω is in
radians/sec, so if θ = 0 at t = 0, then θ = ωt , and our expression for e becomes,
e = 2BLv sin θ
= 2BL(ωW/2) sin ωt
= (LW)Bω sin ωt
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Where,
W = width of the coil
L = length of the coil
N = Number of turns or loops
For a coil of N loops and identifying A = LW
(valid for any planar shape),
e = NABω sin ωt
= eo sin ωt
Where,
eo = maximum emf = NABω
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An A.C. generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The mechanical system
to provide rotation to the alternator is known as the prime mover (Fig. 2). Thus an alternator
can be operated using a steam turbine, hydraulic turbine or a diesel/kerosene engine.
Fig. 2 Prime mover for an alternator
Fig. 3 shows a 3∅ alternator. When the rotor rotates,
the stator winding are cut by the magnetic flux of the
Fig. 3 3∅ alternator
poles. Since the poles are arranged alternately North
(N) and South (S) on the rotor the emf induced is of
alternating type.
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Relationship between Speed, Frequency and Number of Poles
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Following equation gives the relation between speed, frequency and number of poles
Where
P = no. of poles
N = r.p.m.
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The output frequency of an alternator depends on the number of poles and the rotational speed. The speed
corresponding to a particular frequency is called the synchronous speed for that frequency (Table 1).
Table 1 Rotational speed and poles required for producing A.C. at different frequencies
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Suppose a steam turbine rotates at 1000 rpm. Number of poles required in an alternator to
generate 50 Hz alternator current is:
Similarly Table 2 denotes the rotational speed required for alternator with different number
of poles for producing a.c. at 50 Hz:
Table 2 Rotational speed and poles required for producing a.c. at 50 Hz frequency
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1. Calculate the frequency of the alternating current if speed = 300 rpm
and numer of poles = 8.
2. A generator with a circular coil of 75 turns of area 3.0 x 10-2 m2 is
placed in a 0.20 T magnetic field and rotated with a frequency of 60
Hz. Find the maximum emf which is produced during a cycle.
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1. Calculate the frequency of the alternating current if speed = 300 rpm
and numer of poles = 8.
2. A generator with a circular coil of 75 turns of area 3.0 x 10-2 m2 is
placed in a 0.20 T magnetic field and rotated with a frequency of 60
Hz. Find the maximum emf which is produced during a cycle.
Solution:
N = 75, A = 3.0 x 10-2 m2, B = 0.20 T and f = 60 Hz .
Since ω = 2πf = 2π(60) = 377 radians/s
eo = (75)(3.0 x 10-2)(0.20)(377) = 170 V
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An alternator is an electrical machine which
01 mechanical
converts COURSEenergy into alternating
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electric energy. They are also known
as synchronous generators.
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Where is an Alternator Used?
Alternators produce the power for the electrical systems of modern
vehicles. Previously, DC generators or dynamos were used instead. But
after the development of the alternator, they replaced DC dynamos since
alternators are more robust and lightweight.
Since the electrical system of motor vehicles requires direct current and
not alternating current, an alternator is used alongside a diode rectifier to
convert the current from AC to DC.
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Despite this need to convert the current from AC to DC, an alternator
is still used as it lacks the complicated commutation present in a DC
generator.
This particular type of generator used in the vehicle is known as an
automotive alternator (learn how an alternator is constructed).
Another use of alternators is in diesel-electric locomotive. The engine
of this locomotive is nothing but an alternator, driven by a diesel
engine.
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The alternating current produced by this generator is converted to DC by
integrated silicon diode rectifiers to feed all the DC traction motors.
These DC traction motors drive the wheel of the locomotive.
We also use this machine in marine similar to a diesel-electric locomotive.
We specially design the synchronous generator used in marine and navy
with appropriate adaptations to the salt-water environment.
The typical output level of a marine alternator is about 12 or 24 volt. In
big marine sheep, more than one units are used to provide massive
power.
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In this marine system, the energy produced by the alternator is first
rectified then used for charging the engine starter battery and auxiliary
supply battery of the marine.
One of the primary uses of alternators is in the production of bulk ac
power for commercial purposes. In thermal power plants, in hydel
power plants, even in nuclear power plants, alternators only converts
mechanical energy to electrical energy for supplying to the power
system.
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Types of Alternators
Alternators or synchronous generators can be classified in many ways
depending upon their applications and designs.
The five different types of alternators include:
•Automotive alternators – used in modern automobiles.
•Diesel-electric locomotive alternators – used in diesel-electric
multiple units.
•Marine alternators – used in marine applications.
•Brushless alternators – used in electrical power generation plants as
the main source of power.
•Radio alternators – used for low band radio frequency transmission.
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We can categorize these AC generators (alternators) in many ways, but
the two main categories depending on their design are:
[Link] Pole Type
[Link] Cylindrical Type
We use it as low and medium speed alternator. It has a large number of
projecting poles having their cores bolted or dovetailed onto a heavy
magnetic wheel of cast iron or steel of good magnetic quality.
Such generators get characterized by their large diameters and short
axial lengths. These generators look like a big wheel. These are mainly
used for low-speed turbine such as in hydel power plant.
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01 COURSE OBJECTIVES
Smooth Cylindrical Type
We use it for a steam turbine-driven alternator. The rotor of this generator
rotates at a very high speed. The rotor consists of a smooth solid forged
steel cylinder having certain numbers of slots milled out at intervals along
the outer periphery for accommodating field coils.
These rotors are designed mostly for 2 poles or 4 poles turbo generator
running at 36000 rpm or 1800 rpm respectively.
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Michael Faraday and Hippolyte Pixii gave the very first concept of
alternator. Michael Faraday designed a rotating rectangular turn of
conductor inside a magnetic field to produce alternating current in the
external static circuit.
After that in the year of 1886 J.E.H. Gordon, designed and produced
first prototype of useful model. After that Lord Kelvin and Sebastian
Ferranti designed a model of 100 to 300 Hz synchronous generator.
Nikola Tesla in 1891, designed a commercially useful 15 KHz generator.
After this year, poly phase alternators came into picture which can
deliver currents of multiple phases. [Link]
01 COURSE OBJECTIVES
The power for electrical system of modern vehicles produces from alternator. In
previous days, DC generators or dynamos were used for this purpose but after
development of alternator, the DC dynamos are replaced by more robust and
light weight alternator. Although the electrical system of motor vehicles
generally requires direct current but still an alternator along with diode rectifier
instead of a DC generator is better choice as the complicated commutation is
absent here. This special type of generator which is used in vehicle is known as
automotive alternator.
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01 COURSE OBJECTIVES
Another use of alternator is in diesel electric locomotive. Actually the engine of
this locomotive is nothing but an alternator driven by diesel engine. The
alternating current produced by this generator is converted to DC by integrated
silicon diode rectifiers to feed all the DC traction motors. And these DC traction
motors drive the wheel of the locomotive.
This machine is also used in marine similar to diesel electric locomotive. The
synchronous generator used in marine is specially designed with appropriate
adaptations to the salt-water environment. The typical output level of marine
alternator is about 12 or 24 volt. In large marine, more than one units are used to
provide large power. In this marine system the power produced by alternator is
first rectified then used for charging the engine starter battery and auxiliary
supply battery of marine. [Link]
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Generalised expression for EMF equation of an
Alternator:
Considering full pitch, concentrated winding,
EØ = 4.44 f ΦTph volts
For full pitch coil, Kc = 1
For concentrated winding Kd = 1
01 COURSE OBJECTIVES
But due to short pitch, distributed winding used
in practice, this Eph will reduce factors Kc and Kd.
So generalised expression for the derivation of
emf equation of Synchronous
generator or Alternator can be written as
EØ = 4.44 Kc Kd f ΦTØ volts
For full pitch coil, Kc = 1
For concentrated winding Kd = 1
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Key Point: Now the factor by which, induced emf gets
reduced due to short pitching called pitch factor or coil
span factor denoted by Kc or Kp.
It is defined as the ratio of resultant emf when the coil is
short pitch to the result emf when the coil is full pitched.
It is always less than one.
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Where: α = Angle of short pitch
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Distribution Factor (Kd):
01
Similar to full pitch coils, concentrated COURSE OBJECTIVES
winding is also rare in
practice. Attempt made to use all the slots available under a pole
for the winding which makes the nature of the induced emf
more sinusoidal. Such a winding is called distributed winding.
Consider 18 slots 2 pole alternator.
So slots per pole i.e. n = 9.
m = Slots per pole per phase = 3
β = 180°/9 = 20°
01 COURSE OBJECTIVES
The distribution factor is defined as the ratio of the resultant emf when coils are
distributed to the resultant emf when coils01 are concentrated.
COURSE ItOBJECTIVES
is always less
than one.
where m = Slots per pole per phase
β = Slot angle = 180°/n
n = Slots per pole
01 COURSE OBJECTIVES
1. The number of cycles generated in 01
an 8-Pole COURSE
alternator in one
OBJECTIVES
revolution is ____?
2. What is the speed of a 100kW, 230V, 3Ø, 4P, 60Hz alternator?
3. A 6P, 3Ø alternator has 72 slots having a coil span of 12. What is
the pitch factor?
4. A 3Ø, 4P, 36 slots alternator has its armature coil short- pitched
by 1. What is the pitch factor?
5. A 3Ø, 60Hz, 10P alternator has 120 slots and 4 turns in every coil.
The coil pitch is shorted by 2 slots. What is the winding distribution
factor?
01 COURSE OBJECTIVES
1. An 8-Pole ac generator is running at 750rpm. What is the frequency? At what
speed must the generator be run so that the frequency shall be 40cps?
2. A 12-Pole, ac 1Ø generator has 144 slots, 2/3 of which are
wound with 8 conductors/slot. The flux01 per poleCOURSE OBJECTIVES
is 42mWb. The
distribution factor is 0.829 and the coil span factor is unity. If the
speed is 500 rpm, find the frequency and the generated emf.
3. A 4-Pole, 3Ø, 50Hz, star connected generator has 24 slots, 40
conductors / slot, and a flux per pole 01
of 63mWb. COURSE OBJECTIVES
Find the terminal
voltage on open circuit if the coil span factor is unity.
4. An ac generator winding has an effective resistance of 0.2Ω and
01 COURSE OBJECTIVES
synchronous reactance of 2.2 Ω. Find the generated emf when the
load is 50Amp at a terminal voltage of 500V, at
a) unity pf
b) 0.866 lagging pf
c) 0.8 pf leading
5. A 2-Pole, 3Ø, 50Hz, star connected alternator has 9 slots per pole
01 COURSE OBJECTIVES
and 6 conductors /slot. What is the flux per pole if the voltage on
open circuit is 1.1kV? Assume full pitched.
6. A 6-Pole, 3Ø, 60Hz, wye-connected alternator has 12 slots per
01 is 5/6COURSE
pole and 4 conductors /slot. The winding pitched. The flux
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per pole is 0.025Wb. Determine the voltage on open circuit.
01 COURSE OBJECTIVES
1. A 100MVA, 13.8kV, 3Ø, 60Hz, wye-connected alternator will have a nominal
impedance of ___?
2. A 2500kVA, 6.6kV, 3Ø, 60Hz, wye-connected alternator has a synchronous
reactance of 10.4Ω per phase and negligible resistance. It delivers a full load current
at 0.8 pf lagging at rated voltage. What will be the voltage regulation?
3. A generator is rated at 100MW, 13.8kV and 90% pf lagging. The
01 COURSE OBJECTIVES
effective resistance ratio is 1.5. The ohmic resistance is obtained by
connecting two terminals to a dc source. The current and voltage
are 87.6A and 6V respectively. What is the resistance per phase?
4. Synchronous impedance test is taken on a 3-phase generator.
01 COURSE OBJECTIVES
Under short circuit condition, the currents in the three lines are
26.2A, 23.7A, and 27.4A. What current should be used for the test?
5. If in a 3-phase alternator, field current
01 of 50ACOURSE
produces a full
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load current of 200A on short-circuit and 1730V on open circuit,
then its synchronous impedance is _____?
6. A 50kVA, 550V, 1-phase alternator draws a field current of 10A at
01
rated load. With the same field current, the EOCCOURSE
and ISCOBJECTIVES
are 300V
and 150A respectively. Resistance between terminals is 0.8Ω. The
ratio of the effective to ohmic resistance is taken at 1.5. What will
be the voltage regulation at 0.8pf lagging?
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