Diploma in Education

(Primary)

Poetry

DEPP156
Author: A. Maposa
MBA (ZOU)
[Link] (Educational Admin) (UZ)
Post Grad Dip (Educational Admin) (UZ)
Grad CE (UZ)
B.A. (Hons) English (UZ)

Content Reviewer: Rhoda Chipidza

[Link] Curriculum and Arts – English (UZ)
B.A. English and Religious Studies (Africa University)

Editor: Dr Ignatius Isaac Dambudzo

PhD Psychology of Education (UNISA)
MEd Educational Administration/Management, (UZ)
BA (Honours) (UZ)
PgDip Psychology (OU)
PGCE (UZ)
Cert Examination Management (UCLES)
Published by: The Zimbabwe Open University

P.O. Box MP1119

Mount Pleasant

Harare, ZIMBABWE

The Zimbabwe Open University is a distance teaching and open

learning institution.

Year: 2014

Cover design: T. Ndhlovu

Layout : S. Mapfumo

I.S.B.N: 978-1-77938-894-0

Typeset in Times New Roman, 12 point on auto leading

© Zimbabwe Open University. All rights reserved. No part of this

publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of
the Zimbabwe Open University.
Forewor d To the student
The demand for skills and knowledge
and the requirement to adjust and
administrators of varied backgrounds,
training, skills, experiences and personal
change with changing technology, interests. The combination of all these
places on us a need to learn continually qualities inevitably facilitates the
throughout life. As all people need an production of learning materials that
education of one form or another, it has teach successfully any student, anywhere
been found that conventional education and far removed from the tutor in space
institutions cannot cope with the and time. We emphasize that our
demand for education of this magnitude. learning materials should enable you to
It has, however, been discovered that solve both work-related problems and
distance education and open learning, other life challenges.
now also exploiting e-learning
technology, itself an offshoot of e- To avoid stereotyping and professional
commerce, has become the most narrowness, our teams of learning
effective way of transmitting these materials producers come from different
appropriate skills and knowledge universities in and outside Zimbabwe,
required for national and international and from Commerce and Industry.
development. This openness enables ZOU to produce
materials that have a long shelf life and
Since attainment of independence in are sufficiently comprehensive to cater
1980, the Zimbabwe Government has for the needs of all of you, our learners
spearheaded the development of in different walks of life. You, the
distance education and open learning at learner, have a large number of optional
tertiary level, resulting in the courses to choose from so that the
establishment of the Zimbabwe Open knowledge and skills developed suit the
University (ZOU) on 1 March, 1999. career path that you choose. Thus, we
strive to tailor-make the learning
ZOU is the first, leading, and currently materials so that they can suit your
the only university in Zimbabwe entirely personal and professional needs. In
dedicated to teaching by distance developing the ZOU learning materials,
education and open learning. We are we are guided by the desire to provide
determined to maintain our leading you, the learner, with all the knowledge
position by both satisfying our clients and skill that will make you a better
and maintaining high academic performer all round, be this at certificate,
standards. To achieve the leading diploma, undergraduate or postgraduate
position, we have adopted the course level. We aim for products that will
team approach to producing the varied settle comfortably in the global village
learning materials that will holistically and competing successfully with anyone.
shape you, the learner to be an all-round Our target is, therefore, to satisfy your
performer in the field of your own quest for knowledge and skills through
choice. Our course teams comprise distance education and open learning
academics, technologists and
Any course or programme launched by ZOU asynchronously, with peers and tutors whom
is conceived from the cross-pollination of ideas you may never meet in life. It is our intention
from consumers of the product, chief among to bring the computer, email, internet chat-
whom are you, the students and your employers. rooms, whiteboards and other modern methods
We consult you and listen to your critical of delivering learning to all the doorsteps of our
analysis of the concepts and how they are learners, wherever they may be. For all these
presented. We also consult other academics developments and for the latest information on
from universities the world over and other what is taking place at ZOU, visit the ZOU
international bodies whose reputation in distance website at [Link]
education and open learning is of a very high Having worked as best we can to prepare your
calibre. We carry out pilot studies of the course learning path, hopefully like John the Baptist
outlines, the content and the programme prepared for the coming of Jesus Christ, it is
component. We are only too glad to subject my hope as your Vice Chancellor that all of you,
our learning materials to academic and will experience unimpeded success in your
professional criticism with the hope of educational endeavours. We, on our part, shall
improving them all the time. We are continually strive to improve the learning
determined to continue improving by changing materials through evaluation, transformation of
the learning materials to suit the idiosyncratic delivery methodologies, adjustments and
needs of our learners, their employers, research, sometimes complete overhauls of both the
economic circumstances, technological materials and organisational structures and
development, changing times and geographic culture that are central to providing you with
location, in order to maintain our leading the high quality education that you deserve. Note
position. We aim at giving you an education that your needs, the learner ‘s needs, occupy a
that will work for you at any time anywhere and central position within ZOU’s core activities.
in varying circumstances and that your
performance should be second to none. Best wishes and success in your studies.

As a progressive university that is forward

looking and determined to be a successful part
of the twenty-first century, ZOU has started to
introduce e-learning materials that will enable
you, our students, to access any source of
information, anywhere in the world through _____________________
internet and to communicate, converse, discuss Prof. Primrose Kurasha
and collaborate synchronously and Vice Chancellor
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At
The Zimbabwe Open University
A s you embark on your studies with the Zimbabwe
Open University (ZOU) by open and distance
learning, we need to advise you so that you can make
This is where the six hour tutorial comes in. For it
to work, you need to know that:
· There is insufficient time for the tutor to
the best use of the learning materials, your time and
the tutors who are based at your regional office. lecture you
· Any ideas that you discuss in the tutorial,
The most important point that you need to note is originate from your experience as you
that in distance education and open learning, there work on the materials. All the issues
are no lectures like those found in conventional raised above are a good source of topics
universities. Instead, you have learning packages that (as they pertain to your learning) for
may comprise written modules, tapes, CDs, DVDs discussion during the tutorial
and other referral materials for extra reading. All these
· The answers come from you while the
including radio, television, telephone, fax and email
can be used to deliver learning to you. As such, at tutor’s task is to confirm, spur further
the ZOU, we do not expect the tutor to lecture you discussion, clarify, explain, give
when you meet him/her. We believe that that task is additional information, guide the
accomplished by the learning package that you receive discussion and help you put together full
at registration. What then is the purpose of the six answers for each question that you bring
hour tutorial for each course on offer? · You must prepare for the tutorial by
bringing all the questions and answers
At the ZOU, as at any other distance and open that you have found out on the topics to
learning university, you the student are at the centre the discussion
of learning. After you receive the learning package, · For the tutor to help you effectively, give
you study the tutorial letter and other guiding him/her the topics beforehand so that in
documents before using the learning materials. During cases where information has to be
the study, it is obvious that you will come across gathered, there is sufficient time to do
concepts/ideas that may not be that easy to understand so. If the questions can get to the tutor
or that are not so clearly explained. You may also at least two weeks before the tutorial,
come across issues that you do not agree with, that that will create enough time for thorough
actually conflict with the practice that you are familiar preparation.
with. In your discussion groups, your friends can bring
ideas that are totally different from yours and In the tutorial, you are expected and required to
arguments may begin. You may also find that an idea take part all the time through contributing in every
is not clearly explained and you remain with more way possible. You can give your views, even if
questions than answers. You need someone to help they are wrong, (many students may hold the same
you in such matters. wrong views and the discussion will help correct
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University

the errors), they still help you learn the correct thing as the tutor may dwell on matters irrelevant to the
as much as the correct ideas. You also need to be ZOU course.
open-minded, frank, inquisitive and should leave no
stone unturned as you analyze ideas and seek
clarification on any issues. It has been found that Distance education, by its nature, keeps the tutor
those who take part in tutorials actively, do better in and student separate. By introducing the six hour
assignments and examinations because their ideas are tutorial, ZOU hopes to help you come in touch with
streamlined. Taking part properly means that you the physical being, who marks your assignments,
prepare for the tutorial beforehand by putting together assesses them, guides you on preparing for writing
relevant questions and their possible answers and examinations and assignments and who runs your
those areas that cause you confusion. general academic affairs. This helps you to settle
down in your course having been advised on how
Only in cases where the information being discussed to go about your learning. Personal human contact
is not found in the learning package can the tutor is, therefore, upheld by the ZOU.
provide extra learning materials, but this should not
be the dominant feature of the six hour tutorial. As
stated, it should be rare because the information
needed for the course is found in the learning package
together with the sources to which you are referred.
Fully-fledged lectures can, therefore, be misleading

The six hour tutorials should be so structured that the

tasks for each session are very clear. Work for each
session, as much as possible, follows the structure given
below.

Session I (Two Hours)

Session I should be held at the beginning of the semester. The main aim
of this session is to guide you, the student, on how you are going to
approach the course. During the session, you will be given the overview
of the course, how to tackle the assignments, how to organize the logistics
of the course and formation of study groups that you will belong to. It is
also during this session that you will be advised on how to use your
learning materials effectively.
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University

Session II (Two Hours)

This session comes in the middle of the semester to respond to the
challenges, queries, experiences, uncertainties, and ideas that you are
facing as you go through the course. In this session, difficult areas in the
module are explained through the combined effort of the students and
the tutor. It should also give direction and feedback where you have not
done well in the first assignment as well as reinforce those areas where
performance in the first assignment is good.

Session III (Two Hours)

The final session, Session III, comes towards the end of the semester.
In this session, you polish up any areas that you still need clarification on.
Your tutor gives you feedback on the assignments so that you can use
the experience for preparation for the end of semester examination.

Note that in all the three sessions, you identify the areas
that your tutor should give help. You also take a very
important part in finding answers to the problems posed.
You are the most important part of the solutions to your
learning challenges.

Conclusion for this course, but also to prepare yourself to

contribute in the best way possible so that you
In conclusion, we should be very clear that six can maximally benefit from it. We also urge you
hours is too little for lectures and it is not to avoid forcing the tutor to lecture you.
necessary, in view of the provision of fully self-
contained learning materials in the package, to BEST WISHES IN YOUR STUDIES.
turn the little time into lectures. We, therefore,
urge you not only to attend the six hour tutorials ZOU
Contents

Overview __________________________________________________ 1

Unit One: What is Poetry?

1.0 _______ Introduction ________________________________________________ 5

1.1 _______ Unit Objectives ______________________________________________ 6
1.2 _______ Definition of Poetry __________________________________________ 6
1.3 _______ How Poetry Differs From Other Genres __________________________ 8
_________ Activity 1.1 _________________________________________________ 9
1.4 _______ The Language of Poetry______________________________________ 10
_________ Activity 1.2 ________________________________________________ 12
1.5 _______ Elements of Poetry __________________________________________ 13
_________ 1.5.1 Literary terms _________________________________________ 13
_________ Activity 1.3 ________________________________________________ 15
1.6 _______ Summary __________________________________________________ 16
_________ References _________________________________________________ 17

Unit Two: Major Developments in Literature

2.0 _______ Introduction _______________________________________________ 19

2.1 _______ Unit Objectives _____________________________________________ 20
2.2 _______ Historical Perspective of the Developments of Literature over the ______
_________ Centuries __________________________________________________ 20
_________ 2.2.1 The Medieval Period (1340-1400) __________________________ 20
_________ Activity 1.2 ________________________________________________ 22
_________ 2.2.2 Elizabeth and Jacobean Period (1580 - 1610) ________________ 22
_________ 2.2.3 Metaphysical Poetry (1600’s) _____________________________ 23
_________ Activity 2.2 ________________________________________________ 25
_________ Activity 2.3 ________________________________________________ 26
_________ 2.2.4 From the Eighteenth Century to the Victorian Era ___________ 26
_________ 2.2.5 The Romantic Poets and Victorian Poets ____________________ 26
_________ Activity 2.4 ________________________________________________ 27
_________ 2.2.6 The Morden Era (19th - 20th Century) _____________________ 29
2.3 _______ Cultural Origins of Poetry ____________________________________ 29
 _________ Activity 2.5 ________________________________________________ 31
_________ 2.3.1 Oral literature _________________________________________ 31
_________ Activity 2.5 ________________________________________________ 32
_________ 2.3.2 Forms of Oral Literature ________________________________ 32
2.4 _______ Popular Approach Theories ___________________________________ 33
2.5 _______ The Significance of Oral Literature ____________________________ 34
_________ Activity 2.3 ________________________________________________ 35
2.6 _______ Summary __________________________________________________ 35
_________ References _________________________________________________ 37

Unit Three: The Music in Poetry

3.0 _______ Introduction _______________________________________________ 39
3.1 _______ Unit Objectives _____________________________________________ 40
3.2 _______ Rhyme and Rhythm _________________________________________ 40
_________ 3.2.1 Music ________________________________________________ 40
_________ 3.2.2 Nursery rhymes ________________________________________ 40
_________ 3.2.3 Significance of rhythm, metre and rhyme ___________________ 42
_________ Activity 3.1 ________________________________________________ 42
3.3 _______ Poetry in Music/The Music in Poetry ___________________________ 42
_________ Activity 3.2 ________________________________________________ 44
3.4 _______ Types of Poetry _____________________________________________ 45
_________ 3.4.1 Lyric poems ___________________________________________ 45
_________ 3.4.2 Narrative Poems ________________________________________ 45
3.5 _______ Blank Verse ________________________________________________ 45
3.6 _______ Epitaph ___________________________________________________ 45
3.7 _______ Free Verse _________________________________________________ 46
3.8 _______ Ode _______________________________________________________ 46
3.9 _______ Sonnet ____________________________________________________ 46
_________ 3.9.1Miltonic sonnet _________________________________________ 46
_________ 3.9.2 Petrarchan sonnet ______________________________________ 46
_________ Activity 3.3 ________________________________________________ 48
_________ 3.9.3 Shakespearian Sonnet ___________________________________ 48
_________ 3.9.3 Spenserian sonnet ______________________________________ 49
3.10 ______ Dramatic Monologue ________________________________________ 49
3.11 ______ Elegy _____________________________________________________ 49
3.12 ______ Dirge _____________________________________________________ 49
_________ Activity 3.4 ________________________________________________ 49
3.13 ______ Summary __________________________________________________ 50
_________ References _________________________________________________ 51
Unit Four: Literary Appreciation of Poetry
4.0 _______ Introduction _______________________________________________ 53
4.1 _______ Unit Objectives _____________________________________________ 54
4.2 _______ Denotations and Connotations _________________________________ 54
_________ 4.2.1 Denotations ___________________________________________ 54
_________ 4.2.2 Connotations __________________________________________ 55
_________ Activity 4.1 ________________________________________________ 56
_________ Activity 4.2 ________________________________________________ 58
4.3 _______ Writing Essays on Poetry as Assignments or Examinations ________ 59
_________ 4.3.1 Knowledge of the text ___________________________________ 59
_________ 4.3.2 Analysing the poem _____________________________________ 59
_________ 4.3.3 Answering the question __________________________________ 59
_________ 4.3.4 Response to the text _____________________________________ 60
_________ Activity 4.3 ________________________________________________ 60
_________ Activity 4.4 ________________________________________________ 61
_________ Activity 4.5 ________________________________________________ 62
_________ 4.3.5 An example of a poem for practical criticism ________________ 62
_________ Activity 4.4 ________________________________________________ 63
4.4 _______ Summary __________________________________________________ 63
_________ References _________________________________________________ 64

Unit Five: Further Understanding of Poetry

5.0 _______ Introduction _______________________________________________ 65

5.1 _______ Unit Objectives _____________________________________________ 66
5.2 _______ Literary Appreciation of Poetry________________________________ 66
5.3 _______ Theme, Style and Tone _______________________________________ 67
_________ 5.3.1 Theme _______________________________________________ 67
_________ Activity 5.1 ________________________________________________ 68
_________ 5.3.2 Style _________________________________________________ 68
_________ 5.3.3 Tone _________________________________________________ 69
_________ Activity 5.2 ________________________________________________ 69
5.4 _______ Communicative Efficacy of Poetry _____________________________ 69
_________ Activity 5.2 ________________________________________________ 71
_________ Activity 5.4 ________________________________________________ 73
5.5 _______ How to Analyse a Poem ______________________________________ 73
_________ 5.5.1 Sense _________________________________________________ 73
_________ 5.5.2 Intention _____________________________________________ 74
_________ 5.5.3 Feeling _______________________________________________ 74
_________ 5.5.4 Tone _________________________________________________ 75
_________ Activity 5.5 ________________________________________________ 76
5.6 _______ Preparing To Respond To Poetry in Writing ______________________ 77
_________ 5.6.1 Writing to respond ______________________________________ 77
_________ 5.6.2 Comparing poems ______________________________________ 77
_________ 5.6.3 Write to analyse ________________________________________ 78
_________ 5.6.4 Writing to explicate _____________________________________ 78
 _________ 5.6.5 Writing to evaluate _____________________________________ 79
_________ Activity 5.6 ________________________________________________ 80
5.7 _______ Summary __________________________________________________ 80
_________ References _________________________________________________ 81

Unit Six: Figurative Language

6.0 _______ Introduction _______________________________________________ 83
6.1 _______ Unit Objectives _____________________________________________ 84
6.2 _______ The Meaning of Symbolism ___________________________________ 84
_________ Activity 6.1 ________________________________________________ 86
6.3 _______ Types of Symbolism in Poetry _________________________________ 86
_________ 6.3.1 Symbolism of action ____________________________________ 86
_________ 6.3.2 Symbolism of scenes and settings __________________________ 86
_________ 6.3.3 Symbolism of characters _________________________________ 87
_________ 6.3.4 Symbolism of situation(s) _______________________________ 87
_________ Activity 6.2 ________________________________________________ 88
6.4 _______ Diction ____________________________________________________ 88
6.5 _______ Similes and Metaphors _______________________________________ 88
_________ 6.5.1 Simile ________________________________________________ 89
_________ 6.5.2 Metaphor _____________________________________________ 89
_________ Activity 6.3 ________________________________________________ 90
6.6 _______ Imagery ___________________________________________________ 91
6.7 _______ Types of Imagery ___________________________________________ 92
_________ 6.7.1 Visual imagery _________________________________________ 92
_________ Activity 6.4 ________________________________________________ 93
_________ 6.7.2 Auditory imagery _______________________________________ 93
_________ 6.7.3 Olfactory, gustatory tactile imagery ________________________ 93
_________ 6.7.4 Kinetic and kinesthetic imagery ___________________________ 94
_________ Activity 6.5 ________________________________________________ 94
6.8 _______ Personification _____________________________________________ 94
6.9 _______ Other Figures Of Speech _____________________________________ 96
_________ Activity 6.6 ________________________________________________ 96
6.10 ______ Summary __________________________________________________ 97
_________ References _________________________________________________ 98

Unit Seven: Role and Function of Poetry

7.0 _______ Introduction _______________________________________________ 99

7.1 _______ Unit Objectives ____________________________________________ 100
7.2 _______ Role of Poetry _____________________________________________ 100
_________ 7.2.1 Negritude ____________________________________________ 100
_________ 7.2.2 Liberation Poetry ______________________________________ 101
_________ 7.2.3 A Social Perspective ____________________________________ 101
7.4 _______ Political Perspectives of Poets’ Role____________________________ 103
 _________ Activity 7.1 _______________________________________________ 105
_________ 7.4.1 Protest within Borders _________________________________ 105
_________ 7.4.2 Protest by those in exile ________________________________ 105
7.5 _______ Struggles between Tradition and Modernisation __________________ 105
_________ Activity 7.2 _______________________________________________ 106
7.6 _______ Liberation Poetry in Zimbabwe _______________________________ 106
_________ Activity 7.3 _______________________________________________ 108
7.7 _______ Poetry in the Post Colonial Era _______________________________ 108
_________ Activity 7.4 _______________________________________________ 109
7.8 _______ Summary _________________________________________________ 109
_________ References ________________________________________________ 110

Unit Eight: Writing Poetry

8.0 _______ Introduction ______________________________________________ 111

8.1 _______ Unit Objectives ____________________________________________ 112
8.2 _______ Why Write? ______________________________________________ 112
8.3 _______ How to Write _____________________________________________ 112
8.4 _______ Creative Writing ___________________________________________ 113
_________ Activity 8.1 _______________________________________________ 114
8.5 _______ Practical Guides for Writers _________________________________ 115
_________ 8.5.1 Write a lot ___________________________________________ 115
_________ 8.5.2 Read a lot ____________________________________________ 115
_________ Activity 8.2 _______________________________________________ 116
8.6 _______ Summary _________________________________________________ 116
_________ References ________________________________________________ 117
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Module Overview

T his module enables you to experience poetry through a variety of highly

involving activities and examples of poems. You will appreciate the broad
selection of famous authors’ work, and the general conversational tone of all
the units. Instead of being ‘told and told’, you are given opportunities to
discover and find out for yourself. Throughout its units, the module promotes
active learning and stimulates critical thinking. It therefore serves as the most
effective teaching and learning introductory course in poetry. Most learners
do not like poetry. This module is designed to correct misconceptions and
make all of us enjoy reading and even writing poems. By the end of the
module we should be convinced that poetry is, “distillation of human wisdom
and thought,” Ngugi (1981). Poetry can be obscure and hard to understand
but even novels and drama can be equally difficult. More positive attitudes
are required and readers of poetry have to be totally immersed in the poetry.
Such a stance is bound to result in a deeper understanding and enjoyment of
poetry. The choice of literary anthology will not be confined to Zimbabwe
because the Zimbabwe Open University already has a virtual region and is
bound to grow globally.
Poetry DEPP 156

Poetry is gradually enjoyed because it allows learners to by- pass minor gram-
mar points and go straight to the meaning. As you will soon discover, it is a
very interesting genre of literature. This module makes use of extracts and
complete poems to help us explore and appreciate the richness of poetry. It
examines the purpose(s), the types and characteristics of poetry. Techniques
used to create the desired effects are closely studied and some questions/
tasks are included in the module units, to consolidate our understanding.

This Module is one of the essential ingredients for the understanding of poetry.
It is highly welcome because the study of poetry is a daunting task to many
people. The module takes into account the fact that some of its readers did
not have the opportunity to study any Literature in English at Ordinary Level.
As a result it tries to demystify poetry and make it what it really is—i.e. ’Very
Enjoyable”! The eight units that make up the Module take you step by step
and equip you with the skills you need to critically appreciate any poem in life.

Unit 1 takes you through the definition(s) of poetry several of these are given
and some excerpts of poems are used so that the language of poetry is
understood. The characteristics of poetry are also examined in such a manner
that you see those aspects that make the genre of poetry differ from novels
and drama. In the unit we introduce you to poetry in general.

In Unit 2 we consider the historical background of poetry. We explore the

major developments in poetry and bring in the cultural impact on the evolution
of poetry. Historical developments of any phenomenon is significant in the
sense that we explain the major changes and chart the way forward .In simple
terms, whoever does not know where he/she is coming from, is not likely to
get the correct way forward. This is why in this unit we dig into the past.

Unit 3 focuses on Lyrics which inherently include the discussion of sound

effects in poetry. The broad types of poetry are examined, with concrete
examples. In this same unit, you will discover that the nursery rhymes that
most people take for granted, have a special place in poetry. In the unit we
deliberately include nursery rhymes so that the thrust of the module is further
enhanced. Can adult learners honestly be scared of the rhymes that continue
to be repeated in Early Childhood Centres (E.C.D)? In the unit we highlight
all the elements of poetry in the lyrics, showing how sound effect makes this
genre a special area of study.

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2 Zimbabwe Open University
 Module Overview

Unit 4 is concerned with literary appreciation of poetry. In the unit we lead

you into the most common and effective approaches to practical criticism of
poetry. Using practical examples, we demonstrate how a full understanding
of poetry is achieved. There are crucial features that one cannot do without
and these are pointed out. We must be quick to mention that in literary appre-
ciation of poetry, there is no single correct answer. However, you have to pay
attention to the text, in order to support your observations. A convincing ap-
preciation has to be supported by textual evidence.

Unit 5 is really an extension/consolidation of Unit 4 because it deals with

further understanding of poetry. It is not duplication because it continues from
where we end Unit 4. How ever, it differs from it in that it is more advanced in
its approach. More complex issues are introduced and fully explained. Trained
teachers will readily understand the recommended pedagogical development
from simple to the more complex issues. This unit is more thorough and more
critical in its methods of appreciation of poetry.

Unit 6 is about figurative language that is used in most poetry. An understand-

ing of the effects, implications and connotations of figurative language is im-
perative. We start by defining figurative language from several perspectives
and then illustrate its use through concrete examples. The previous unit might
have dealt with some figurative language but it needs a whole unit. The genre
of poetry is more compact than other genres because of its unique use of
language. Interpretation of figurative language adds to one’s comprehension
of a poem.

In Unit 7 we examine the role and function of poetry in society. We start from
the nursery rhymes and move onto more complex socio - political issues. In
other words we address the question, “Why write poetry?’’.Like any other
form of communication, poetry is written for specific purposes. In the unit we
thus examine how poetry serves the various purposes. It is not for nothing
that poetry is written and/or performed. More details will be unfolded in the
unit, with appropriate examples.

Unit 8 is about how to write poetry. We awaken the talents and skills that are
often ignored. The underlying assumption is that there is a lot of potential
which needs to be unlocked and developed in people like you. Nobody is
born a writer and the skill of writing can be acquired. This unit therefore
demystifies the identity of poets and shows that they are people, just like you
and I. Who knows...? You can be inspired to start working on your anthology
and have it published soon. There is no harm in trying, is there?

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Zimbabwe Open University 3
 1
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Unit One
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What is Poetry?

1.0 Introduction

I n this unit, we examine the meaning of poetry and the several forms in
which it is part and parcel of our daily lives. The unit explores the elements
or characteristics of poetry in an effort to understand how poetry differs from
other genres of literature. The definitions of poetry are so many that they
cannot be exhausted in this module. The very basic definitions and examples
are given so that the attitudinal barriers to appreciation of poetry are tackled
right from the beginning of the module. An understanding of this unit will serve
as a foundation for the units that build upon it. You will find this unit to be a
solid and stimulating introduction to the experience of poetry.
Poetry DEPP 156

The words poem and poetry originate from the Greek word poiein, which
means to ‘ create or make.’ This points to the fact that poetry is a created
artifact, a structure that develops from human imagination and that is expressed
rhythmically in words. The poet is the person who exclusively writes poetry.
According to Robert Frost (1924), “Poetry begins in delight and ends in
wisdom.” So poetry has to be enjoyed and understood as well .It may be
meant to amuse, praise or indicate, or persuade, or produce an effect which
will be more valuable than amusement and different from instruction. As you
will discover, poetry primarily is an exploration of the possibilities of language.
“Poetry is seen as an art appealing only to an intellectual group of persons and
therefore out of the reach of the ordinary people,” Antonio Tosta, (1996).
Such and similar views have made many educators neglect poetry as a tool
for language instruction. In this unit we demystify poetry and emphasise good
reasons for integrating poetry into communication courses. Poems usually
deal with universal themes which are familiar to all readers - love, happiness,
hatred, protest, pain, success, failure, corruption and so on. Another reason
for including poetry in this programme is that poems bring contexts that are
culturally and linguistically rich. The poet can move his/her audience more
forcefully than the historian because of the intensity of emotion found in poetry.

1.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
 define poetry
 outline the various forms of the sociological existence of poetry
 describe the characteristics of the genre of poetry and show how poetry
differs from drama and novels
 discuss the main elements of poetry

1.2 Definition of Poetry

Wordsworth (1800) says “Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful
feelings.” From this definition, it can be said that poetry is the utterance or
projection of the thought and feelings of the poet. The imaginative process
thus modifies and synthesises the images, thoughts and feelings of the poet.
Wordsworth goes on to say, “poetry proceeds from the soul...communicating
its creative energies to the images of the external world.” It is advisable to let
your definition of poetry be cumulative as you read more and more poems.
No dictionary definition will embrace all the facets of poetry that you will
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Unit 1 What is Poetry?

discover as you read on. You will discover for yourself, poetry’s many ele-
ments, its many effects and its many ways of acting. Let us consider further
definitions. “Poetry is an echo, asking a shadow to dance.” Carl Sandburg
(2012) says according to Nicaraguan poet, Daisy Zamora (1995),” poetry is
a way of feeling life.” Poetry captures intense experiences or creative percep-
tions of the world in a musical language. Basic elements of poetry have to be
understood so as to make the analysis of poems easier.

Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1959) defined poetry as “the best words in their
best order.” Best words are those that express the poet’s meaning in the
most precise, vivid, concrete and effective way possible. The ordering of and
the relationship between words within phrases and sentences is called the
syntax. Poetic syntax distinguishes between the actual words and their
patterning within the poem. For this program we will not deal with syntax in
greater detail.

Sir Phillip Sidney (1904:158) says “Poesy therefore an art of imitation ... that
is to say, presenting, counterfeiting or figuring forth a speaking picture: with
this end to teach and delight.” From this ancient definition, we can see that
poetry has a purpose - to achieve certain effects in an audience. It imitates in
order to teach and please. Poets imitate ‘what is’, ‘what has been’, ‘what will
be’, ‘what may be’ and ‘what should be.’

Poetry is often thought of as the most “difficult,” of the three literary modes or
genres. The genres of literature are drama, prose (novels and short stories)
and poetry .This genre (poetry) depends on words for its impact on readers.
Poetry is considered to be complex largely due to several specialised
techniques it uses and also because it condenses and compresses experience(s)
making it the most concentrated form of literature. It demands undivided
attention if it is to be understood. One has to be totally involved in it.

Negative Perspective of Poetry: The term “poetic,” can mean “artificial,”

suggesting that reality is twisted somehow. In some ways poetry is indeed
artificial. It manipulates metre, rhyme, diction, imagery and rhythm to simplify
what it intends to put across. The language and style of poetry are usually
furthest removed from the language of other literary modes and the language
of social interaction. To a great extent, poetry is also written in colloquial
language.

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1.3 How Poetry Differs From Other Genres

The definition of poetry is quite elusive because the genre includes a variety of
forms and approaches. The Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary defines a
poem as “the elevated expression of elevated thought or feeling in metrical
form.” The characteristics that distinguish poetry from other genres include:
concern for lines as opposed to sentences; attention to the sound/pronunciation
of the words; development of rhymes and a tendency to create density by
compressing both meaning and motion (Minot, 1993).

„ Poets organise their language in a different way from the manner used
in prose.
„ Poetry uses a stanza while writers of prose use paragraphs to make the
change or shift in the subject matter.
„ Poetry makes use of rhyme, alliteration, rhythm, unusual syntax and its
non - compliance with regular punctuation rules.
Poetry often has compressed context and there may be different levels of
meaning in a poem. As a starting point, let us go through this poem, which is
entitled, “Solitude.”

SOLITUDE
Laugh, and the world laughs with you
Weep, and you weep alone;
For the sad old earth must borrow its mirth,
But has trouble enough of its own.
Sing, and the hills will answer:
Sigh, it is lost on the air;
The echoes bound to a joyful sound,
But shrink from voicing care.

Rejoice, and men will seek you;

Grieve, and they turn and go;
They want full measure of all your pleasure,
But they do not need your woe.

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Unit 1 What is Poetry?

Be glad, and your friends are many;

Be sad, and you lose them all.-
There are to decline your nectared wine,
But alone you must drink life’s gall.

Feast, and your halls are crowded;

Fast, and the crowd goes by.
Succeed and give, and it helps you live,
But no man can help you die.

For there is room in the halls of pleasure

For a large and lordly train.
But one by one we must all file on
Through the narrow aisles of pain.
(Ella Wheeler Wilcox 1924)

Activity 1.1
1. Read it and let its words lead you. Then present your answer along the
? following lines:
 The subject of the poem is......
 It is phrased in the form of an argument, passion or......
 The diction is.........any imagery? Similes? .........What effects do
they create?
 The second/third/last stanza suggests..................../urgency.
 There is a sudden injection of humor/desperation/urgency into the
poem in the last section.
 The mood of the poem is......

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1.4 The Language of Poetry

Poetry is more than just words. It is an experience of words which is so
intimately concerned with feelings. Poetry is unique in that it uses words with
the utmost economy. The words of poetry define the poems’ speaker, the
characters, the setting, and the situation and they also carry its ideas and
emotions. This explains why each poet searches for perfect words to convey
all the compressed meanings, overtones and emotions as required. Most poems
are basically about how people feel rather than how people think. For instance,
poets put into words what it means to be in love, what it feels like to lose
someone you love or to be treated unfairly. Poetry can be the voice of our
feelings even when our minds are speechless with grief or joy. Here is a poem
entitled “The Vultures,” written by David Diop, a West African Poet.

The Vultures
In those days
When civilization kicked us in the face
When holy water slapped our cringing brows
The vultures built in the shadow of their talons
The bloodstained monuments of tutelage.
In those days.

There was painful laughter on the metallic hell of the roads

And the monotonous rhythm of the paternoster
Drowned the howling of the plantations
O the bitter memories of extorted kisses
Of promises broken at the point of a gun
Of foreigners who did not seem human
Who knew all the books but did not know love
But whose hands fertilise the womb of the earth
In spite of your songs of pride
In spite of the desolate villages of torn Africa
Hope was preserved in us as in a fortress
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Unit 1 What is Poetry?

And from the mines of Swaziland to the factories of Europe

Spring will be reborn under our bright steps.

Critique

Now let us try to understand the use of language in this poem. What follows
is not a very detailed practical criticism of the poem but it does give some
guidelines because it is a typical approach of getting better understanding:

The title: “Vultures,” - these are birds of prey and one is strongly tempted to
associate them with colonizers. The poet is taking readers to the past and
describing how things took place then. The poet does not appreciate what
happened in the past but remains optimistic about the future, as evidenced by
the very last line of the poem “spring (a season of rebirth, renewal, rejuvenation
and re - growth) will be reborn under our bright steps.” The season and
words like “re -born,” and “bright,” all point towards better things to come.

Choice and use of words

This section is brief and aims to help you understand the effects of metaphors
and similes that are used in the poem. The coming of civilization was not
welcome. It “Kicked,” the Africans in the face even the water for baptism
was not welcome because it “slapped them.” The acts of kicking and slapping
both inflict pain. The monument, which is a building or statue to keep memories
of their guardianship (.i.e. tutelage), is bloodstained suggesting that they used
violence to get their positions.

Read the poem that follows. It is an interesting poem whose concerns

are closely related the poem entitled “The Vultures.”
AFRICA
Thus she had lain
Sugar cane sweet
deserts her hair
golden her feet
mountains her breasts
two Niles her tears
Thus she has lain
Black through the years
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Over the white seas

rime white and cold
brigands ungentled
icicle bold
took her young daughters
sold her strong sons
churched her with Jesus
bled her with guns.
Thus she has lain.

Now she is rising

remember her pain
remember the losses
her screams loud and vain
remember her riches
her history slain
now she is striding
although she had lain

(Source: Maya Angelou- 1975)

Activity 1.2
1. What is the poem about?
? 2.
3.
What is the effect of the repeated use of “lain?”
Identify words that make the African continents seem vulnerable?
4. What stance does the poet take in the last stanza?

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Unit 1 What is Poetry?

1.5 Elements of Poetry

We examine the essential elements of poetry under this section. We begin by
looking at literary terms .There are terms which are peculiar to poetry .In this
section only some basic and commonly used ones will be defined with
examples to make us understand them.

1.5.1 Literary terms

„ Alliteration is a close repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning
of words for example,’ Five miles meandering with a mazy motion.’
Another example can be seen below:
“In the steamer is the trout
Seasoned with silver of ginger.”
Source: Li - Young Lee( 1986):
Eating Together
„ Onomatopoeia is the use of words or phrase such as “hiss” or “buzz”
that imitates or suggests the sound of what it described.
„ Oxymoron is a figure of speech which combines mutually exclusive
terms to arrive at a new and fresher meaning derived from the apparently
contradictory terms.
„ Assonance is a close repetition of vowel sounds, usually as the stressed
syllables in a line of verse as in,’ The maid said she made a cake’.
Another example is shown below:
And the stars rise but
I see the bright eyes
Annabel Lee: Edgar Allan Poe (2012)

„ Consonance occurs when words have different vowel sounds but have
the same final consonant
„ Rhyme: Words are said to rhyme when they have the same vowel and
when the consonants that follow the vowel sounds are the same. Rhyme
is usually at the end of the line(s) and is used to create pattern in poetry.
For example, Twinkle , twinkle little star,
How I wonder what you are.
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„ In the two lines given above, the underlined words, “star” and
“are,” rhyme. Rhyme is a repetition of the stressed vowel sound and
any succeeding sound in two or more words. There is an internal rhyme
which occurs within a line of poetry. There is end rhyme; which occurs
at the end of lines. The third type is known as a rhyme scheme that is,
the pattern of the end rhymes, may be designated by assigning a different
letter of the alphabet to each new rhyme.
„ Hyperbole is a figure of speech whose chief element is exaggeration.
It is the opposite of understatement. For example, “I have a stack of
work to do today”
„ Blank verse is unrhymed poetry.
„ Couplet: A two line section of a poem that rhymes at the end of the
lines. For example,
”He who bends to himself a joy
Doth the winged life destroy;
But he who kisses the joy as it flies
Lives in Eternity’s sunrise.
Source: Blake, W. (1794).
„ Diction is an author’s choice and use of words; his/her vocabulary.
Diction can be archaic (using old fashioned words or words no longer
used often), colloquial (like everyday speech), refined, elegant, technical,
scientific and so on.
„ Dirge: A mourning poem or song, of lament, composed in
commemoration of the leader.
„ Epic: An extended narrative poem, with a heroic subject matter and
theme, and an exalted tone.
„ Epitaph: Originally a verse inscription on a tombstone, now any poem
which expresses a feeling for someone who is dead, usually in an attempt
to sum up their lives.
„ Free Verse: Poetry without regular metre or line length.
„ Stanza: A group of lines in a poem, divided off from the others. Each
division or stanza refers to what in ordinary speech is often wrongly
called a verse of a poem.
„ Imagery: This is descriptive language which is usually thought of as
visual pictures and can refer to, or describe any of the four senses
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Unit 1 What is Poetry?

(taste, touch, hearing and smell). An image is often expressed in the

form of a simile or metaphor.
„ Metaphor: Comparison between two dissimilar objects. It enables
writers to state that one object is the other. For example, “Steve is
donkey,” would mean that Steve has all the qualities of a donkey.
„ Personification: A figure of speech which gives inanimate objects or
abstract ideas, human qualities or actions; making non - human things
appear as human.
„ Simile: Unlike metaphor, which requests you to do the work of
constructing the logic of categories and analogies, a simile states explicitly
that two items are comparable and often provides the basis for the
comparison. The figure of speech uses words “as,” or “like,” to
compare. For example, “She is like a door mat.”
„ Speaker: Every poem has a speaker, or voices that talk to the reader(s).
The speaker is not necessarily the poet. It can be a fictional person, an
animal, or even an object. e.g. “But believe me son I want to be what I
used to be when I was like you.” (Source: Okara, G. (1978),” Once
Upon a time.”
„ Lines and stanzas: A line is a row of words that may or may not form
a complete sentence. A stanza is a group of lines forming a unit. The
stanzas in a poem are separated by a space. They are the equivalents
of paragraphs that we use in prose.
„ Rhythm and metre: Rhythm is the pattern of sound created by the
arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line. Rhythm can
be regular or irregular. Metre is a regular pattern of stressed and
unstressed syllables, which sets the overall rhythm of certain poems.

Activity 1.3
1. With examples , describe the effectiveness of figurative language in
? 2.
poetry.
Distinguish between rhyme and rhythm.
3. Which characteristics of poetry make it different from other genres.

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1.6 Summary
In the unit we have defined poetry and taken you through its characteristics
that make it a distinct genre. By now we should be ready to learn more about
poetry because its language has been discussed and activities that are
appropriate for an introductory section have been included, with the objective
of assisting you to be more prepared not only to answer questions but also
ask those questions you have always had about the genre. In the unit we have
deliberately started with the basics so as to reduce the negative attitude that
some people have towards poetry and at the same time eradicate the so-
called mystery around poetry .The elements of poetry have also been examined
and appropriate examples were used for illustration. Nobody should be
intimidated by a course in poetry because it is actually very exciting and easy
to follow.

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References
Angelou, M. (1997). “Graduation In Stamps” University of Pittsburg Press.
Blake. W. (1794). The Complete Poetry & Prose of William Blake. New
York Anchor Books: Random House Inc.
Frost, R. (1999). American Poetry Review . U. [Link] Francisco Bulletin
Volume 28, Number 6.
Minot, S. (1993). Three Genres: The Writing of Poetry , Fiction and Drama
7th Edition. New Jersey. Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs
Ngugi wa Thiongo (1981). Writers In Politics: Studies In African Literature.
London, Heinemann.
Poe, A. E. (2012). Complete Poetical Works . United Kingdom. Legacy
Reprints.
Sandburg, C. (2012). The Complete Poems of Carl Sandburg. United
States. Harcourt Inc.
Sidney, P. (1904). The World’s Best Poetry Volume 6. Descriptive:
Narrative. Philadelphia John D. Morris & Co.
Taylor ,C.T.(1959). Selected Poems. London. Heinemann Educational Books.
Wheeler, W. E. (1924). The Collected Poems of Ella Wheeler Wilcox.
London L. B. Hill
Young (1986). Eating Together. BOA Editions Ltd. New Jersey. Goodman
St. Rochester.
Wordsworth, W. (1800). Lyrical Ballads . United Kingdom. Oxford
University Press.
Zamora, D. (1995). Clean Slate. United States. Curbstone Press.

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Unit Two
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Major Developments in
Literature

2.0 Introduction

I n this unit we explore the historical background of poetry by tracing major

developments in the genre. Major landmarks like the Medieval Period
(1340 - 1400), Elizabethan and Jacobean (1580 - 1600) the Victorian Era
(1819 - 1880) Romantic Poets and the Modern Era are highlighted. Person-
alities (icons) like Geoffrey Chaucer, William Shakespeare, William Blake,
Musayemura Zimunya, David Hebert Lawrence and Chenjerai Hove are
included in this section. The significance of history to any aspect of life (art
included) is described and then attention is paid to the fact that we actually
live with poetry. Perhaps we have never paused to think about the amount of
poetry in our daily lives. We do not deal at length with the political dimension
of poetry because there is a unit that gives details later. This unit does not
ignore the importance of culture, the link between culture and poetry (for
both European and African communities). There is more on the English liter-
ary tradition for the simple reason that their work was documented way be-
fore we became literate in our country.
Poetry DEPP 156

2.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 describe the pivotal shifts in the development of literature
 explore the key names of poets and their work(s) in the development
of poetry
 discuss the common themes and style of the eras covered
 analyse the evolution of poetry over the years

2.2 Historical Perspective of the Developments of

Literature over the Centuries
In the previous unit we explored the meaning of poetry. This unit takes us
through a historical perspective of the developments of literature over the
centuries. It is essential to note that developments in literature are often taken
for granted, to the extent that they are sometimes totally ignored. For one to
understand the emerging trends in the genre (poetry) it is necessary to start by
grasping what has gone on in the literary arena. The historical development is
therefore an all - important part of our study. For this module, only the histori-
cal developments are provided so that we find a place for our feet in this maze
of poetry. Key eras and key personalities cannot be avoided in the
development(s) of literature.

2.2.1 The Medieval Period (1340-1400)

Most studies in English literature begin in the medieval period and Geoffrey
Chaucer is the most popular author of the period in question. He was a tal-
ented poet whose works had “everything for everyone,” Stephen (1986). He
was the first poet to write in a language recognisable as English. We now refer
to it as “ancient English” and I can never forget how I was fascinated by that
type of English in my first year at the University of Zimbabwe. At first I thought
there was something wrong with Professor A. Chennels ....how on earth could
he decide to teach us such old fashioned, out - of - date English? But I real-
ised that the past always matters. This is why in the 21st century we are still
referring to Chaucer’s Canterbury tales.

Chaucer’s themes included courtly love, marriage, chivalry, greed, religion,

pride, morality and so on. His techniques were buttressed by the use of satire
and irony in exploiting his themes. To many students, the language he used is
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Unit 2 Major Developments in Literature

a barrier because a lot of the words he used are no longer in circulation.

Pronunciation and spelling have also changed a great deal. However, the se-
rious students should not in any way be discouraged from enjoying literature
presented in ancient English. Translations of Chaucer’s poetry are available
but as you know translations do not carry all the flavour of the original.
Chaucer’s work should not scare anybody. We will have the “feel” but it is
most unlikely that in this century, you can be tested on any excerpts of Chaucer’s
texts.

In small groups read the following extract from the wife of Bath’s Tale by
Geoffrey Chaucer.
As ever more I drinken wyn or ale.
I shall seye sooth, tho housebondes that I hadde,
As thre were goode men, and riche, and olde;
Unnethe mighte they the statut holde
In which that they were bounded unto me.
Ye woot wel what I meene of this pardee.

As help me God, I laughe whan I thinke

How pitously a - night. I made hem sinke!
And, by my fey, I tolde of it on stoor.
They had me yeven hir lond and hir tresoor;
Me needed nat do lenger diligence
To winne hir love, or doon hem reverence.
They loved me so wel, by God above,
That I ne told no deyntee of hir love.

Translation of above extract into modern English

As ever may I (be denied such pleasure if this is not true). I
drank wine or ale.
I shall tell the truth about the husbands that I had
Of whom three were good men, rich and old
They carried out the obligation set down by St. Paul
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By which they were bound unto me

What I mean by this, is that these old husbands were impotent
So help me God, I laugh when I recall
How every night I made them sweat in labour , in bed
I cared nothing for their distress
They had given me their land and their treasures
There was no further need for me to exert myself.
To win their love nor to treat them respectfully
They loved me so much, by God
That I set no value on their love.

Activity 1.2
1. Paraphrase the extract, to clearly put across what it is all about.
? 2.
3.
Comment on the use of language.
Compare it to its translation which follows.
4. Comment on the effect of language development?

2.2.2 Elizabeth and Jacobean Period (1580 - 1610)

This period covers the time when Queen Elizabeth was in power. England
was still very conservative and struggles with the Roman Catholic Church
were already underway. It was a period of outstanding artistic activity. During
this period there was an increase in theatrical literature. Along with it were
increased political and socio - economic hitches in Great Britain.

As hinted at earlier on, literature began in poetic form. Drama was the domi-
nant genre of the era and it is worthwhile to note that the Elizabeth and Jaco-
bean theatre was the first in which professional actors participated in Eng-
land. Before this, theatre performances were held in the courtyards of inns.
Makeshift stages would be set up and members of the audience would buy
seats to watch the drama. In Zimbabwe we have street theatre and people
just give/pay some money out of their own volition. This is because there is
open access. In London, the first public theatre was constructed in 1576.
More attention was given to drama than poetry, during this period but the
drama relied heavily on poetic language. It is for this reason that the era is
relevant to poetry.
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Unit 2 Major Developments in Literature

2.2.3 Metaphysical Poetry (1600’s)

This is a significant era in the development of English Literature. The poets
who are identified during this literary period include John Donne (1571 -
1631), Andrew Marvell (1621 -78), George Herbet (1593 - 1633) and Henry
Vaughan (1622 - 95). These poets experienced serious social and political
turmoil. According to Stephen (1986: 121), “a few years after Donne’s death,
England was to execute its king and do away with its monarchy for twenty
years.”Their poetry is characterised by a lot of anxiety and uncertainty, cou-
pled by religion.

The term “metaphysical” came from Dryden, J (1931 - 1700).It defines the
poets who extensively used paradox, irony and puns. They generally utilized
word play. Their imagery was drawn from all sources of knowledge particu-
larly from science, theology, geography and philosophy. Some of their poetry
is very emotional. A good example is that entitled, ”The Canonization” written
by Stephen, (1986).
The Canonization
For God sake hold your tongue, and let me love,
Or chide my palsie, or my gout,
My five gray hairs, or ruin’d fortune flout
With wealth your state, your minde with Arts improve
Take you a course, get you a place
Observe his honor, or his grace,
Or the kings recall, or his stamped face
Contemplate, what you will approve
So you will let me love

Alas, alas, who’s injured by my love?

what merchants ships have my sighs drown’d?
Who saies my teares have overflow’d his ground?
When did my colds a forward spring remove?
When did the heats which my veines fill

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(So made such mirrors, and such spies

That they did all to you epitomize)
Countries, townes, courts; Beg from above
A pattern of your love!

Adde one more to the plaguie Bill?

Soldiers finde warres and Lawyers finde out still
Litigious men, which quarrels move.
Though she and I do love.

And thus invoke us: You whom reverend love

Made one another hermitage;
You to whom love was place, that now is rage,
Who did the whole worlds soule contract, and drove
into the glasses of your eyes.

Critique:
The poem begins dramatically on a note of exasperation. The “you” who the
speaker addresses is not identified. We can only imagine that it is a person,
probably a friend, who is objecting to the speakers’ love affair. In any case,
the person represents the practical world which regards love as a silly affec-
tion. According to the metaphor on which the poem is built; the friend repre-
sents the secular world which the lovers have renounced.

Donne suggests this metaphor in the first stanza by the contemptuous alterna-
tives which he suggests to the friend:

“.... childe my palsie, or my gout,

My five gray haires, or ruin’d fortune flout...”

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24 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 2 Major Developments in Literature

Activity 2.2
1. What does the speaker/poet imply in stanza one, concerning the friend’s
? 2.
opinion?
What phrases show that the speaker does not want to be bothered?
3. In what way does stanza four achieve tenderness and deliberate reso-
lution?

“We can dye, if not live by love,

And if unfit for tombes and hearse

Our legend bee, it will be fit for verse;

And if no peece of Chronicle wee prove

We’ll build in sonnets of pretty roomes

As well a well wrought urne becomes

The greatest ashes, as halfe - acre tombes

And by these hymnes, all shall approve

Us cannoniz’d for love.”

Critique continued

The basic metaphor which the poem (and which is reflected in the title), in-
volves a sort of paradox. This is evidenced by the fact that the poet daringly
treats profane love as if it were divine love. So the poem is to a large extent,
a parody of Christian sainthood, perhaps the poet does not take love seri-
ously and is merely sharpening his wit. Another possibility is that the poet
does not take sainthood seriously and is simply indulging in cynical parody.
However, a closer reading of the poem will prove that Donne takes both love
and religion seriously.

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Zimbabwe Open University 25
Poetry DEPP 156

Activity 2.3
1. Describe how stanza 2 brings about a shift in mood, from the irritation
? 2.
of stanza 1.
What is the paradox in the final stanza? (What have the lovers won by
becoming hermits?)

2.2.4 From the Eighteenth Century to the Victorian Era

This section is actually of no interest to us in the sense that it focuses on
experimentation in the genre of prose. Key figures of this era include Daniel
Defoe (1689 - 1761); Henry Fielding (1775 - 1817), Charlotte Bronte (1816
- 55) and Emily Bronte. These are the key players in the development of the
novel as a genre.

The Victorian Era (1812 - 1880) is marked by another wave of the develop-
ment of English Literature. Authors who featured during this period are Charles
Dickens (1812 - 70), William Thackeray (1811 - 63). Of interest to us in this
module are the writers of poetry. So we will not pay attention to novelists.

2.2.5 The Romantic Poets and Victorian Poets

These poets basically reacted against values of the eighteenth century. They
were somewhat against accepted social conventions of the day and swayed
between ecstasy and acute depression. There was also poetry which reacted
against industrialisation. Many poets addressed the evils of the Industrial Revo-
lution. The distinguished names of this era include William Blake (1757 -
1827), William Wordsworth (1770 - 1850), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 -
1834), Lord Byron (1788 - 1824) and John Keats (1795 - 1821)

Victorian poets followed closely after Romantic Poets. Their poetry reflected
some form of romanticism with nature, God, man’s relationship with nature
and God. The poems present stimulating issues.

In pairs read and discuss the following poems by William Blake (1757 -
1827). Blake was an intensely religious man, but he saw the church as a
repressive force destroying human qualities.

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26 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 2 Major Developments in Literature

(Poem A)
The Garden of Love
I went to the Garden of love,
And saw what I never had seen:
A Chapel was built in the midst,
Where I used to play on the green.

And the gates of this Chapel were shut,

And “Thou shalt not” writ over the door;
So I turn’d to the Garden of Love
That so many sweet flowers bore;

And I saw it was filled with graves,

And tombstones where flowers should be;
And priests in black gowns were walking
their rounds,
And binding with briars my joys and
desires.

Activity 2.4
1. In what way has the Chapel spoilt the place where the speaker “used
? 2.
to play on the greens “? Give reasons for your answer.
What do the graves and the tombstones symbolise?
3. How does rhyme work in the poem?
4. What is implied by “binding my joys and desire?”

(Poem B):

This one is actually presented to enhance what we observed about the the-
matic concerns of the Romantic Poets. Here is a poem from Wordsworth
(1770 - 1850).
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Zimbabwe Open University 27
Poetry DEPP 156

The World is Too Much with Us

The world is too much with us; late and soon
Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers.
Little we see in Nature that is ours;
We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon!
This sea that bares her bosom to the moon;
The wind that will be howling at all hours,
And are up gathering now like sleeping flowers;
For this, for everything, we are out of tune;

It moves us not. Great God! I’de rather be

A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn;
So might I, standing on this pleasant lea,
Have glimpses that would make me less forlorn;
Have sight of Proteus rising from the sea;
Or hear old Triton blow his weathered horn.

Critique

Let us critically appreciate the poem together. You will get comments to
guide you and also questions as we proceed. Generally the poem points to
the fact that in our daily lives, especially living in urban areas, we have lost
touch with the renewing powers of nature. What are the first eight lines about?
What message is conveyed by the last six lines? The poet observes that in
this “world” we use most of our time,’ earning’, ‘getting’ and “spending.” In
what senses are we no longer part of nature, and how have we “given our
hearts away?” to whom/what?

Proteus was a Greek Sea - God. Trilon was one of the minor Sea - Gods
in Greek mythology, with a man’s form but the tail of a fish, often depicted as
carrying a shell trumpet. Suggest what is meant by “suckled in a creed out-
worn.” Do you think Wordsworth would have been happier as a pagan?
Support your answer with textual evidence.

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28 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 2 Major Developments in Literature

2.2.6 The Morden Era (19th - 20th Century)

Distinguished poets of this period include William Butler Yeats (1865 -1939),
Wilfred Owen (1893 - 1918), and Thomas Stearns Eliot (1888 - 1965).
They pursued themes like anarchy, joy, the physical and the spiritual loss of
faith. The modern era embraces the development of different literatures in the
English language. For example there is American, Afro - American, Carib-
bean, African, Zimbabwean literature written in the English language. Not all
literature is English Literature. The term Literature in English acknowledges
and caters for a myriad of literatures written in different parts of the world -
just written in English language. Literature may be written in English language,
even if it does not have anything “English” about the experiences described.
By writing in English, the poets that we have so far cited (and many more)
were addressing even those people beyond their regions. According to p’
Bitek, “words cut more than sticks.”

Ngugi (1984) says language is both a means of communication and a carrier

of culture. In Zimbabwe, the English language is the official language of com-
munication (in business, in education for instance) but it is not a carrier of
Zimbabwean culture and history. Karl Marx says there is a language of real
life i.e. the production of ideas, of concepts, of consciousness. He argues that
production is possible simply because of communication, which fosters co-
operation. Furthermore communication is speech and it imitates the language
of real life. Spoken words mediate between human beings and form the lan-
guage of speech. Language can also be in the written form. There is a very
thin line between what is written and what is spoken. This is because what is
on paper can be received as spoken language.

2.3 Cultural Origins of Poetry

Oral traditions

Oral literature refers to the speeches used to pass messages between and
among people. The spoken word is intrinsically integrated into myths, leg-
ends, epics, fables, songs, dances, proverbs and riddles. Oral literature re-
flects a crucial relationship between people and their environment as well as
between people and themselves. As people’s lives undergo change, it also
changes accordingly to reflect their new perceptions of power organisation in
society. Oral literature embraces all the verbal arts that are available in no-
tions of justice, rights and social obligations. According to Herskovits and

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Frances, (1958: 81) oral literature is a system of social values which phrase
the philosophy underlying the society’s concepts, ideals and ends and marks
off its culture from all others as a way of life.

(Okpewho (1992:), defines oral literature as “literature delivered by word of

mouth,” focuses on the literature’s techniques associated with utterances. Is it
possible to have utterances forming literature? This question is prompted by
the fact that we know that literature refers to written texts. Zirimu, Pio 1983
(a Ugandan critic) coined the term orature to emphasise and also combine the
written and the spoken word. Orature acknowledges the dynamics of oral
literature validating its new existence in the written artistic medium. Oral tra-
dition is a reliable source of society’s values. Zimbabwe’s oral tradition maybe
one of the best reminders of our cultural distinctiveness.

Muchemwa (1978) says the poetry of the early sixties appeared in “sub -
literary,” magazines and showed no definite direction. He goes on to point out
that because of the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) of 1965 by
Ian Smith, the Rhodesian Prime Minister, the isolation of black writing from
other literatures in Africa meant the development of a secluded, “provincial
culture.” Albert Nyathi (1991:13), agrees with Muchemwa by saying, “One
therefore sees Rhodesia as an artistically landlocked country in which no ar-
tistic ship could be expected to land because not only was there no literary
sea but there was no harbour to secure that kind of ship.” Nyathi exaggerates
the issue, here that is, the literary sea was there but inaccessible due to legis-
lative restrictions.

Wild (1988)finds that Zimbabwean poets in Muchemwa’s (1978) anthology

were pre - occupied with the rediscovery of the past and one’s identity while
the post - independence anthology, (And now the Poets Speak) repeats
these themes and only emphasises the bitter experiences that the indigenous
people went through before they attained their independence. It is not easy to
dispute the fact that the underlying visions of the two anthologies are the same.

Nyathi (1991) posits that there is no radical change in the development of

Zimbabwean poetry. He expresses the need for more explicit themes which
address the socio - economic environment in independent Zimbabwe.

Formalist theories serve to describe the characteristics of modernisation theory.

They perceive culture as a system that develops in a linear form – from the
inferior to the superior/advanced stages. They are subjective and Mbele
(1977:18) says, “In the ideological function, is the suppression of what is
revolutionary in the ideological character and function of African (oral) litera-
ture.”
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Unit 2 Major Developments in Literature

Activity 2.5
1. Why does ancient literature remain controversial especially to writers
? 2.
of African Literature?
Justify the relevance of modern literature to contemporary issues in
life.
3. In what ways can instructional processes in schools develop orature?

2.3.1 Oral literature

Nobody is quite certain about when the first forms of oral literature appeared.
It can only be speculated that oral literature stemmed from the labour proc-
ess. The first forms of oral literature could have been work songs (Fisher
1978). They were used to co - ordinate the rhythm of physical work, keep
participants motivated and ease the demands of the task.

The work song can be defined as a song which is created for the work pur-
pose and used to accomplish certain tasks. Where labour was voluntary,
serving to provide a livelihood for the labourer and family members there
were no ill feelings on the part of the labourer. Some of the songs were actu-
ally for celebrating the labour process or its success; some served the role of
inspiring success. Good examples were in the hunting process or in the growth
of crops.

As nations were colonised, the colonisers began to exploit the labour of in-
digenous people. Such exploitation was then cultivated and sustained by vari-
ous legislative measures and policies. So the workers were not satisfied and
this disgruntlement led to the development of the protest songs. Protest can
be due to differences in gender, religion and socio - economic status, for
example , that of women protesting against men or men protesting against
women. The protest aspect that we find in literature is sometimes directly
and/or indirectly expressed

Sometimes the protest element is simply a celebration of those figures who

defy authorities. We have endless examples of praise songs and poems of
heroes of the armed struggle that ousted the British colonialists. However, at
times the protest is disguised, especially through sarcasm, ambiguity or meta-
phors. Even a language that is unintelligible to those at whom the protest is
targeted, is a means of effective protest. Many songs were sung in the mother
- tongue (Shona, Ndebele, and Kalanga, Tonga) against colonialists.

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Long before mankind could read or write, they created, comprehended and
valued poetry. Historic events, natural disasters and dramatic predictions were
remembered and embellished in the verses of song makers, who also gener-
ated ballads which recorded common emotions evoked by lovers’ quarrels,
forbidden romance and family fights. The works of early poets were recited
or sung. The ancient settings suggest the important link between the sound of
a poem and the meaning it creates. With the technological developments,
performance poetry can be recorded so that both the audio and visual effects
are captured. The acceptance of the term, ’’orature” within the studies of oral
literature gave rise to orality, which is a term that describes the oral which
can still be discerned even after oral literature has been written down.

We need to be aware that the terms oral literature, orature and orality came
up as a form of protest against such terms as “traditional literature” and “folk-
lore.” Okpewho (1992:4) points out that,” traditional literature’s thrust is on
the past/historical context, which implies that literature is an unchanging field
of study.” “Traditional” literature may also imply that oral literature is just
handed down from one generation to another. The thrust of the matter is that
community’s oral artists are both adding and subtracting certain elements from
whatever was “handed” down to them. There is nothing as permanent as
change and so change in literature is imperative. So the term “traditional lit-
erature” is perceived negatively. Ngugi (1981) and Okpewho (1992) do not
support the use of “folklore”/folk literature to describe oral literature. The
term, according to Thomas W. J (1846), came to be associated with the
“simple minds of peasants.” Folklore literary implies a whole way of life of
ordinary people, which includes their manners, customs habits, beliefs.

Activity 2.5
1. In your opinion, how valid are the terms oral literature, orature and
? 2.
orality in describing what you understand as “performance poetry.”
To what extent do you see poets/writers to be functioning as agents of
change?
3. How popular is performance poetry in your country? Describe the
current challenges and possible solutions.

2.3.2 Forms of Oral Literature

Oral Literature can be categorised into descriptive narratives, songs, poetry,
dances, and praise epitaphs. Oral narratives embrace extended literary crea-
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32 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 2 Major Developments in Literature

tions which include myths, legends, epics fables and folktales. Akivanga and
Odaga (1982: 69) say in Africa, there is “almost no communal activity that is
not accompanied by a song and dance.” People entertain each other, mock at
certain activities, teach /learn and inspire one another through songs and dance.
War - songs, love songs and work songs embody are based on common
value systems of the community. Proverbs and riddles contain wise messages
or concepts and most of these are in African languages. Translation(s) into
English are not likely to carry the same impact as the original indigenous prov-
erbs and riddles. Fortunately they maintain the role of advising, warning and
reflecting people’s attitudes. The figurative language stems from the practical
social environment of the communities. Live performances carry what is known
as primary orality, unlike the “secondary orality” that comes through films,
broadcasts or print media. You will fully appreciate the role and function of
the speaker(s) (character) in performance poetry because they bring the words
into life.

2.4 Popular Approach Theories

Theories that fall under this category perceive and understand that not all
literature is written. Oral traditions are not necessarily recorded. You might
want to think of the spear- wielding cultural poet performer within the social
context. It is very difficult to argue against the fact that early literary critics
considered African Literature as backward and primitive. Missionaries worked
against African religion, myths and beliefs. Similarly the colonial education
system actually colonised the minds of the African learners. This justifies the
significance of Ngugi’s text (1981), entitled,” Decolonising the Mind.” The
traditional educator has continued to vigorously organise the spiritual world
of the masses to the advantage of reactionary forces.

A lot of debates, scholarly and rather sensitive debate about oral literature still
rage on. Several approaches have been used to define what the oral narrative
in Africa is all about. Stories are usually presented in terms of animal tales,
human tales and fairy tales. There is nothing inferior about using animals to
feature as the main characters. If there is, then George Orwell’s Animal Farm
would have to be judged as inferior too! Figurative language should be ap-
preciated as such for both folk tales (oral) and printed work.

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2.5 The Significance of Oral Literature

Every reader wants justification and value of what they go through, Oral lit-
erature is not in any way inferior to written literature. Akivanga and Odaga
(1982) strongly argue that oral literature shapes people’s values and also
conveys historical concepts that enable human community. Admittedly the
communal verbal discourse dominated traditional performances but poetry is
very strong and comes from lyrically poetic people “, (Kofi Agovi and Suth-
erland Efua, in Laing (1986).

The differences between traditional narratives and poetry are “based more
on the circumstances of the performances than on any formal elements”,
Andrzejewski (1985:141).

Oral literature served to consolidate a sense of duty and respect among com-
munal members. It consistently reminded people of the norms that guided
their behavior. To a large extent oral literature is still understood to be histori-
cal records of people. Oral literature castigates wrong doers and encourages
virtuous acceptable behaviour. Just like propaganda works in contemporary
society, oral literature could be manipulated by powerful people to oppress
other people in society,

The difference between traditional narratives and poetry are “based more on
the circumstances of the performances than on any formal elements”,
Andrzejewski (1985:141) Performance poetry remains a crucial part of our
lives because of its several roles. It is used to entertain, to transmit messages
and there is no way that it can turn a blind eye to the aspects of life which
other genres focus on. Unfortunately, limited resources and other barriers do
not make it possible for us to enjoy performance poetry. Think of perform-
ance poets like Albert Nyathi and Chirikure Chirikure. What do you think
needs to be done for their poetry (praise or protest) to be more accessible to
international readers/listeners? You may find that the language barrier contin-
ues to limit accessibility of their work.

Oral Literature can be said to be complex in the sense that there is no limit to
the type of characters it uses. Animals, human and super – human characters
are used to present human experience in vivid images. There are basically
two ways in which a piece of poetry can affect us:

„ By touching us emotionally so that we feel pleasure or pain.

„ By stimulating our minds in such a way that we think about specific
aspects of life.
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34 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 2 Major Developments in Literature

Performance of oral poetry depends on the situation or process within which

it is not meant to be read, but to be chanted openly before an audience.
Jacobs (1959) and Tedlock (1972) say oral poetry performance is similar to
a dramatic monologue in which the performer supports his verbalization with
a due amount of gestures and grimaces.

Much of the emotional delight that the audience gets from oral poetry comes
from the musical quality that is contained in the song or chant. During the
performance of African oral poetry, sound effects come from drums, strings,
wooden, gongs, rattles, hand, clapping or foot – stamping to enhance the
songs. The oral poet recognises that their first loyalty is to the immediate
context. This does not in any way mean that they have neither the skill nor
interest in endowing their texts with significance larger than the immediate
context.

Activity 2.3
1. Assess the role played by history in developing poetry.
? 2. Describe the main thematic concerns of the modern era, as reflected
through poems you have read.
3. What are the merits and demerits of oral literature? Use examples to
support your answer.

2.6 Summary
Major historical developments in poetry have been identified and described.
We have also seen how oral literature is capable of serving several functions
such as entertaining, shaping people’s values and preserving them too. Oral
literature should not be misconstrued and taken to be part and parcel of only
the elderly people. TheUnit took you through historical perspective of the
development of literature over the centruries spanning the medievial to Victo-
rian age. Cultural origin of poetry, oral literature, forms of literature and popular
theories of literature were presented. Critique of literature was also covered
and demostrated.

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References
Akivaga, S.K. and Odaga, A. B. (1982). Oral Literature: A School Cer-
tificate Course. Nairobi, Heinemann.
Andrzejewski, B. W et al (1985). Literatures In African Languages: Theo-
retical Issues and Samples Surveys. Warsaw; Cambridge University
Press.
Chinweizu, et al. (1980). Towards the Decolonization of African Litera-
ture: African Fiction and Poetry and Their Critics. London, Fourth
Dimension Publishers.
Herskovits, F. and Frances, M. (1958). Dahomean Narratives: A Cross-
cultural Analysis : London, Routlegde and Kegan Paul Ltd.
Jacobs, M. (1959). The Content and Style of An Oral Literature. Chi-
cago, University of Chicago Press, 1959.
Laing, K. B. (1981/1986). Search Sweet Country. (London, Heinemann.
Mbele, J. (1977). Oral Literature Scholarship As an Arena Of Ideologi-
cal Struggle: Second Ibadan Annual Literature Conference, 11-15
July, 1977.
Muchemwa, S.M. (2001). Introduction To Literature: Module ESC 101.
Harare, Zimbabwe Open University.
Ngugi wa Thiongo (1981). Decolonising The Mind: The Politics Of Lan-
guage In African Literature. Harare, Zimbabwe Publishing House.
Okpewho, I. (1979). The Epic In Africa: Towards A Poetic of the oral
Performance. New York, Colombia University Press.
Okpewho, I. (1992). African Oral Literature: Backgrounds, Character
and Continuity. Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana University
Press.
Stephen, M. (1984). An Introductory Guide To English Literature. Singa-
pore, Longman.

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36 Zimbabwe Open University
 3
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Unit Three
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Music in Poetry

3.0 Introduction

I n Unit 3 we concentrate on the perspectives of lyrics that are a significant

element of poetry. Although not all poems fit neatly into categories, the
two major types of poems are narrative and lyric. Narrative poems tell
stories. They often present a significant episode or series of episodes. Examples
of narrative poems include long epics (such Homer’s Iliad or Milton’s Paradise
Lost) as well as short ballads. The word “lyric” comes from the word lyre
(the Greek instrument used for musical accompaniment of poetry). As the
unit unfolds, you are certain to find that lyric poems generally focus on inward
reactions, insights, or responses. Details of forms of lyric poems are also
dealt with. Ever noticed the poetry in the songs you so much love?
Poetry DEPP 156

3.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of the unit, you should be able to:

 distinguish between types of poems

 describe the structural elements of different types of poems
 interpret the impact of sound techniques on the effectiveness of any
poem
 describe the common concerns of lyric poems from any appropriate
anthology

3.2 Rhyme and Rhythm

Any language has its own rhythm. Words are made of syllables: “when,” has
one syllable. “Therefore,” has two; “trag/e/dy,” has three; “Effe/cti/ve/ness,”
has four. There are stressed and unstressed syllables. Metre is an aspect of
rhythm. We are not going to delve much into metre and its categories. Poets
take natural rhythms that exist in language, organise and use them in consistent
repetitive patterns to enhance what they are putting across. According to
Stephen, (1984), poets select a certain type of rhythm, depending on the
atmosphere and the mood of the poem that he/she wishes to write. When a
rhythm is standardised and consistent/ repetitive, then it is no longer mere
rhythm. It becomes metre. Music thrives on rhythm and so we have to
understand it.

3.2.1 Music
Alington (1961) says, “Poetry is the exploration of the possibilities of language.”
Originally poetry was a kind of singing. Poems were always sung or chanted.
For instance, ancient Greeks had love lyrics and epics which were all written
to be sung. The word “lyric,” comes from “lyre,” a stringed instrument which
the Greeks used to accompany the singing of poems. Poetry is, to a large
extent some kind of singing. Rhyme and rhythm are significant characteristics
of poetry and many poets still try their best to maintain the music in their
language. The poets’ concern with rhythm, metre sound distinguishes poetry
from other forms of writing.

3.2.2 Nursery rhymes

In teaching our children the history of English literature and language, we
make them recite poems in praise of remnants of the European feudal classes.
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40 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 3 Music in Poetry

They recite poems that have nothing to do with their life styles. In the
example(s) you are given here, the writer expresses how familiar she/he is
with her/ his own life - style and landscape.

Nursery Rhyme (A).

Baa baa black Sheep Rhyme

Baa baa black sheep, have you any wool?

Yes sir yes sir three bags full!

One for the master, one for the dame,

And one for the little boy who lives down the lane.

Let me briefly explain the history or origins of the Baa Baa Black Sheep
rhyme /History. The wool industry was critical to the country’s (England)
economy from the Middle Ages. The best wool in Europe was from England.
The idea was to associate wool and woolen products to the animal that
produced it, not to mention the sounds or noises that the animals make.

Nursery Rhyme( B)

Jack and Jill

Jack and Jill went up the hill to fetch a pail of water

Jack fell down and broke his crown

And Jill came tumbling after,

Up got Jack, and home did trot

As fast as he could caper

He went to bed and bound his head

With vinegar and brown paper.

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Comment

We hope you notice the rhyme at the end of line 1, 3, 5 and 7 in bold ink and
also the underlined words in the rest of the lines (horizontal) pattern. Children
enjoy repeating these and other rhymes because they enjoy the music/lyrics.
As they do so they acquire the ability to use the English language.

3.2.3 Significance of rhythm, metre and rhyme

The fact that poetry has its origins in song, explains why rhythm, metre and
rhyme are important. Every poet looks for ways to keep music in his/her
language. It is one major attribute which distinguishes poetry from other forms
of writing. Rhythm and emphasis are the main reasons poems are written and
it would be wrong to think that everything written in short lines is a poem.
Eagle
He clasps the crag with crooked hands;
Close to the sun in lonely lands,
Ringed with the azure world he stands.

The wrinkled beneath him crawls;

He watches from his mountain walls,
And like a thunderbolt he falls.

Activity 3.1
1. What is the effect of using alliteration in the first line of the poem?
? 2.
3.
Discuss the implication of “ringed with the azure world.”
What role is played by the simile in the last line of the second stanza?

3.3 Poetry in Music/ Music in Poetry

There is a lot of poetry in the music we sing and listen to. Perhaps we just
have not considered the poetic dimension. Consider the following song to
enhance your understanding of rhyme and then answer the questions that
follow.

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The following is the lyric of a song (House Music) by a singer named Medina
entitled:
You and I
Nothing left for me to say
There’s no more wicked games to play
It’s time for me to walk away
I am alright
I feel like I’m on a high
A new beginning that is my life
I’m turning to the rhythm of the night
I am alright

The music is making me growing

The only thing that keeps me awake is me knowing
There’s no one here to break me or bring me down
And no one here to hurt me or fool around

I have no more time for you to hurt my feeling

Done enough to prove I’m all that I believe in
We are at the end, no more stupid lies
I’m better off without you here by my side
So now there is no longer.

You and I, you and I, You and I

You and I, you and I, You and I
There is no longer
You and I, you and I, You and I
You and I, you and I, You and I
There is no longer
You and I, you and I, You and I
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Don’t care what other people say

I know you fool around all day

No it doesn’t hurt me any way

I am alright.......

(Source: Valbank Medina, Lyrics Universal Music Publishing Group.2011)

Activity 3.2
1. Get the necessary gadgets and listen to this song.
? 2. Identify the rhyme schemes in this song and explain how it creates the
effect it does.
3. How does the repetition of the chorus affect the listeners?

The Song or Lyric

A lyric is performed to the music of the lyre (a stringed instrument). It deals

with the thoughts and feelings of a single speaker who is usually, though not
always a poet. A song or lyric is a stanzaic form that was originally designed
to be sung to a repeating melody, although not all lyrics are written specifically
for music. The stanzas of a lyric may be built from any combination of single
lines, couplets and quatrians. In short, a lyric is a stanzaic poem of variable
measure and length.

In order to fully understand a poem the reader has to be ready and willing to
let the poem guide him/her to its own attitudes, feelings and ideas. The reader
has to let the poem speak so that she/he listens to how that poem says whatever
it says. The language of poetry uses figures of speech. It is almost always
visual and pictorial. Poems depend mainly upon the creation of images in our
minds, helping us to see things fresh and now, or to feel them through our
other senses (for example, hearing or touching). Poetry is most often visual in
the sense that it helps us form in our minds, visual impressions, images which
we understand more easily than concepts. Remember, it is not the kind, but
the use of words that distinguishes poetry from other forms of human
expression. Some poems whose diction and syntax are quite straight - forward
may prove difficult or troublesome because of lack of punctuation or the
unusual typography (i.e. the arrangement of words and lines on a page).
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3.4 Types of Poetry

There are different types of poems. However, you should note that not all
poems fit neatly into categories. There are two major types of poems.

3.4.1 Lyric poems

Lyric poems express the feelings, emotions of the speaker, for example Italian
sonnet, which is divided into two parts: an octave (eight lines) and a sestet (six
lines)? The English or Shakespearean sonnet falls into three quatrains (four
lines) and a concluding couplet (two lines). Open form lyric poems do not
follow any particular pattern or structure.

3.4.2 Narrative Poems

These are presented to tell stories, for example epics and ballads.

„ Ballad: A ballad is a narrative poem ordinarily designed to be sung. In

traditional form it is heavily biased towards action, makes use of dialogue
but little characterisation and employs a simple rhyme. It tells a simple
story, often heroic or tragic and supernatural events often take place in
the course of the action.
„ Epic: An epic is an extended narrative poem, with a heroic subject
matter and theme and an exalted tone. The true epic starts “in medias
res,” (in the middle of the action) after a grand announcement of theme
and an appeal to a muse. The noble hero executes many activities to
display his courage, there are great battles and characters have long
speeches in which they talk about themselves. Modern epics are
different from the classical epics, in several dimensions.

3.5 Blank Verse

Blank verse is poetry that has no rhyme.

3.6 Epitaph
An epitaph was originally a verse inscription on a tombstone. It can also be
any poem which expresses a feeling for someone who is dead usually in an
attempt to sum up their lives.
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3.7 Free Verse

A free verse refers to poetry which has no regular metre or regular line length.

3.8 Ode
An ode is a serious poem with an elevated, dignified style, usually of some
length. The best known examples of odes are “Ode to a Nightingale,” (1819)
by Keats, J and “An Horatian Ode upon Cromwell’s Return from Ireland
(1650) by Andrew Marvel. Odes usually rhyme.

3.9 Sonnet
A sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines, with many variations of rhyme scheme
and structure. There is actually a powerful link between the form of a sonnet
and its content.

3.9.1 Miltonic sonnet

This is a form of a sonnet introduced by the poet John Milton. Its rhyme
scheme is abbaabba(octave) cdcdcd(sestet), but it has no change of mood
or meaning in the second half (that is, the last six years).

3.9.2 Petrarchan sonnet

This is a fourteen line poem divided into two parts, an eight line (OCTAVE)
and a six - line (SESTET). The octave has a rhyme scheme of abbaabba (just
like a Miltonic Sonnet) and the sestet rhyme “cdecde,” (unlike the Miltonic
Sonnet’s last six lines which rhymes “cdcdcd.”

A practical example of a sonnet

Do you still remember what a sonnet is? Check from the literary terms that
were defined in Unit 1. This one is an example of a petrarchian sonnet written
by Hopkins, in Hewett, (1983) Read it carefully:

SPRING

Nothing is so beautiful as spring-(line 1)

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When weeds, in wheels, shoot long and lovely and lush; (line2)

Thrush’s, eggs look little low heavens and thrush (line 3)

Through the echoing timber does so rinse and wring (line 4 )

The ear, it strikes like lightning’s to hear him sing; (line 5)

The glassy pear tree leaves and blooms, they brush (line 6)

The descending blue; that blue is all in a rush (line 7)

With richness; the racing lambs too have fair their fling. (line 8 )

What is all this juice and all this joy? (line 1)

A strain of the earth’s sweet being in the beginning. (line2)

In Eden garden. Have, get, before it cloy, (line 3)

Before it cloud, Christ Lord, and sour with sinning, (line 4)

Innocent mind and Mayday in girl and boy, (line 5)

Most, O maid’s child, thy choice and worthy the winning. (line 6)

Critique

This one is a sonnet, in which the lush growth of spring is vividly described in
the octave, (that is, the first eight lines, which have been numbered up to eight
for your convenience), and the sestet, (the last six lines, numbered up to six
for your convenience) relates spring to the innocence of the Garden of Eden
and of children before they are “soured with sinning”. The poem is characterised
by subtle rhythms and sound echoes. Line eleven is addressed to Christ. The
poet is pleading with him to win the innocent minds of children.

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Activity 3.3
1. Explain lines 3-5 in your own words. What picture do you get of the
? 2.
lambs?
Why ‘juice’ in line 9?
3. In what way does the poet compare spring to Eden?
4. Give some examples of sound echoes, including alliteration, assonance.

3.9.3 Shakespearian Sonnet

This is a fourteen line poem which is divided into three QUATRIANS (that is,
four line section of a poem) with a concluding COUPLET (that is, a two - line
section of a poem).The couplet normally expresses the theme of the poem.
The famous exponent of this genre is William Shakespeare. An example of a
Shakespearian sonnet is presented here.
Let me not to the marriage of true minds
Admit impediments, love is not love
Which alters when it alteration finds
Or bends with the remover to remove.

Oh no, it is an event fixed mark

That looks on tempest and is never shaken:
It is the star to every wand’ring bark.
Whose worth’s unknown although height is be taken.

Love’s not time’s fool though rosy lips and cheeks

Within bending sickle’s compass come,
Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks,
But bears it out even to the edge of doom
If this be error and upon me proved
I never writ, nor no man ever loved.

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3.9.3 Spenserian sonnet

This is a sonnet with the rhyme scheme “ababbcbccdcdee,” and no break in
between the lines. It was named after the poet Edmund Spenser (1552 - 99).

3.10 Dramatic Monologue

A dramatic monologue is a poem written as if spoken aloud by one character.
In speaking, this character reveals his/her own personality and also comments
on a situation.

3.11 Elegy
This is a poem which mourns the death of an individual or a group of individuals.

3.12 Dirge
A dirge is a mourning poem, song of lament, composed in commemoration of
the dead.

Activity 3.4
1. Distinguish between rhyme and rhythm, using concrete examples for
? 2.
illustration.
Listen to the music of your choice and try to establish the rhyme scheme.
3. Justify the prevalent use of nursery rhymes in educational institutions.
4. Define at least four types of poems.

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3.13 Summary
This unit has walked you further into the intricacies of poetry. In a nutshell, we
examined types of poems and the function of sound effects in creating the
desired results. Practical examples were used to consolidate concepts that
are introduced. The various aspects of structure, rhyme, rhythm and other
sound techniques have been described and tried. You will certainly need to
do more exercises until you are more confident with the types of poetry, the
themes associated with certain types and the impact created by all the
techniques that we have covered so far. Now let us move on to the next unit
in which we will pay attention to methods of literary appreciation.

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References
Hewett, R.P. (ed). (1983). Choice of poets An anthology of poets from
Wordsworth to the present day. London: Robert Hartnoll Ltd, Bodmin.
Marvel, A. Joseph, Richard Wilbur (Eds). (1961). Marvel the Laurel Poetry
Series .US: Dell Publishing Company.

Recommended Reading
Ngara, E and Morrison (Eds). (1987). Language Literature and the Nation:
Conference of The University Teachers of Literature and Language
(ATOLL). Harare, Mazongororo Paper converters.

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Unit Four
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Literary Appreciation of Poetry

4.0 Introduction

I n this unit, the focus is on the appreciation of poetry. The question we

would like you to answer before you raise any is, “Why do we read po-
etry?” Perhaps you read it simply because it is a requirement for you before
you acquire the qualification. Maybe you really enjoy it? As hinted at earlier
on, most people think that poetry is a big puzzle. Perhaps such people do not
know how interesting it is to figure out hidden meanings. This unit is meant to
assist and support such people.
Poetry DEPP 156

In this unit we invite you to make personal connections with various selections
of poems that some readers have found important in their lives. A poem exists
on the printed page, but it gains life and meaning only when individual readers
like you bring their knowledge, beliefs, feelings and values to the reading
experience. You cannot be expected to like or enjoy every poem you read.
However, you should be able to respond to every poem that you read. Hav-
ing a genuine, sincere response and being prepared to explore that response
is the key to opening new possibilities in whatever you read for this course,
and also what you read in future.

4.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 explain fully, the overt and covert meaning(s) of any poem
 analyse poetry in terms of its content, form and style
 discuss unseen poetry in a systematic, written form
 describe poems from a critical perspective

4.2 Denotations and Connotations

To achieve the desired effect, poets use not just the simplest and most essential
meanings of words but also the associations and suggestions that are carried
by the words. Denotation refers to what a word means and connotation
refers to what the word suggests. As you begin to appreciate poems you start
from level one which is denotations and then move on to connotations. The
words cat and kitten are very close to each other denotatively but kitten
connotes more playfulness and cuteness than cat. Consider how you describe
the physical appearance of people that you know. The words you use can
bring an unpleasant tone.

4.2.1 Denotations
Denotation refers to standard, most commonly recognised meanings. Although
we might expect denotations to be simple and straight forward, most words
have multiple denotations. For example the word “run,” can refer to the physical
act of moving forward at high speed like a car does , it can also mean movement
of a person at high speed like athletes do and hosiery can also have a run.
Contextual variation of meaning must be noted. This is to say the same word
can mean different things in different contexts.
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4.2.2 Connotations
Connotation refers to a word’s emotional, psychological, social and historical
overtones. The life of a language and the most difficult to control is the aspect
of connotations. Almost all words have more than one meaning for instance
according to the dictionary the words childish and childlike denote the state
of being like a child. However, they connote or imply different characteristics.
The word childish suggests a person who is immature and silly, whereas childlike
suggests that a person is innocent and charming. These different interpretations
are based on connotations. This is because denotations make very little
differences. Connotations affect all the poetry that we read and listen to. You
will find manipulation of connotations in almost all the poems you read.
Manipulation may come in the form of describing a used car like a pre –
owned car just to avoid negative connotations of used. Poets always make
individual words carry as many appropriate denotations and connotations as
possible. In other words, they use “loaded,” language to bring about a broad
range of meanings and associations. With this in mind read the following poem
by Robert Graves,
The Naked and the Nude
For me, the naked and the nude
(By lexicographers construed
As synonyms that should express
The same deficiency of dress
Or shelter) stand as wide apart
As love from lies, or truth from art.

Lovers without reproach will gaze

On bodies naked and ablaze;
The Hippocratic eye will see
In nakedness, anatomy;
And naked shines the Goddess when
She mounts her lion among men
The nude are bold, the nude are sly
To hold each treasonable eye.
While draping by a showman’s trick
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Their dishabille in rhetoric,

The grin a mock – religious grin
Of scorn at those of naked skin.

The naked, therefore, who compete

Against the nude may know defeat;
Yet when they both together tread
The briary pastures of the dead,
By Gorgons with long whips pursued,
How naked go the sometime nude!
(Source: Robert Graves in Roberts and Jacobs 2003)

Some definitions of words used in the poem:

„ Lexicographers - writers of dictionaries

„ Hippocratic – this adjective derives from Hippocrates, the ancient
Greek who is considered to be the “father,” of medicine.
„ Gorgons – mythological female monsters with snakes for hair.

Activity 4.1
1. How does the speaker explain denotations and connotations of “naked,”
? 2.
and “nude,” in the first stanza?
What examples of the naked and the nude are provided in the second
and third stanzas?
3. How do the connotations of the words like “sly,” “grin,” contribute to
the poem's ideas about the nude?
4. What does “briary pastures of the dead,” mean in line 22?

Critique:

The poem explores connotative difference between “naked,” and “nude,”

which have a common denotation. The inclusion of complex words like
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“Lexicographers,” implies that the connection between the naked and the
nude is both sophisticated and artificial.

Practical criticism

Practical criticism is the analysis of poetry by carefully studying both the surface
meaning and the implied meaning. When you have the text available, there is
less emphasis on actual recall of the poem. You therefore need to concentrate
on your ability to marshal the text to the purpose of your argument and your
comments on the text should highlight the effects of specific words, phrases
and the lines that you refer to.

The first test any poet must pass is no longer “Is it true to nature?” Rather
readers ask, “Is it sincere?” “Is it genuine?” Does it match the intention, the
feeling and the actual state of mind of the poet? The use of figurative language
often helps us to get the wholesome meaning.

Educators and instructional leaders may want to ask, “Can a student’s

interpretation of a poem ever be wrong?” The truth is that there is plenty of
room for individual interpretation but at times it becomes imperative to set the
student’s interpretation right by careful re - reading. For second language
students, lexical mistakes are very common. A word can be misread and a
poem misinterpreted .There is no formula for practical criticism but the criticism
has to establish the Sense; Intention; Feeling and Tone of the poem.

For a start, let us look at this simple poem.

That Blow

I could hear the chime

But was really a crime

Now and then we got involved in a fight

A new page was opened by that night’s fight

The prison guard came along

I saw the same lifeless eyes I had seen for long

She stood by the door, frowned and shouted, “OUT”!

No answer was expected, we all shuffled out.

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Once out there it was time for fresh air

People gazed at us, and went on with their business
I was ashamed of our kind of business
That uniform and all the work...it was not fair

By the way, there is no fairness in life

Even wild animals fight
I had been provoked into that fight
But that blow took his life

Damn it, it was chilly by night

Swore I would never do it again
I repeated this resolution with all my might
My freedom was inaccessible by right.
(Source: Angela Maposa – 2013 (Unpublished)

Activity 4.2
1. What is the poem about?
? 2.
3.
How appropriate is the title of the poem?
What does the last stanza tell us about the writer’s state of mind?

More often than not, you are expected to prove your knowledge and ability
to literary appreciate poetry, by way of written work. The section that follows
equips you with some guidelines on how to approach your written work.
Assignments and examinations are both conducted in order to give you an
opportunity to write answers to questions provided.

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4.3 Writing Essays on Poetry as Assignments or

Examinations
In examinations, candidates are expected to write an essay which presents an
argument in response to a particular question. Marks are awarded for recalling
and using relevant quotations to support an argument, where the poem is not
printed on the question paper. Salient features that are to be addressed are:
Knowledge of the text; analysis of the text; answering the question and
individual response to the text.

4.3.1 Knowledge of the text

The best way is to carefully read the poem's syllabus .Reading is a technique
that is concerned with the appropriate use of and response to any text that
consists of printed symbols and words on surfaces like screens and paper.
You are expected to read intensively, that is, study the text very closely and
grasp what the poem is about and how it manipulates language. Knowledge
of a poem can be proved by a thorough understanding of the poem or collection
of poems. Emphasis is placed on reading, which is a study skill that you continue
to use today.

4.3.2 Analysing the poem

When you analyse you consider parts (or a part) in a relationship to the whole
to which they belong. For example, a History Examination might ask you to
discuss and explain the causes of the Liberation Struggle. Such a question
requires that you look at the various parts/aspects (political, economic, and
social) of the whole Liberation Struggle. You will explain how each part
contributed to the war. Similarly, when you analyse a poem, you will have to
examine its parts carefully - to see their contribution to the meaning of the
whole poem. For instance, you might consider the language and its sound
mechanisms and /or figurative language, what do they contribute to the
meaning?

4.3.3 Answering the question

The candidate’s opinion is sought. No marks are awarded for irrelevant
material, no matter how true it may be. It is a waste of time to write irrelevant
stuff. Candidates are advised to plan, in order to minimise chances of derailing
in their attempts to answer the questions.

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4.4.4 Response to the text

A poem may be uninviting at a first reading and then becomes more reward-
ing once the reader knows more about it. The strangeness and the difficulties
disappear with time. The reader of the poem should just focus on showing
awareness of what the author is saying. Blending of the reader’s thoughts with
those of the author/poet indicates sensitivity to the text. This is what is meant
by, “response.”

Activity 4.3
1. Justify the need for development of reading skills in the study of poetry.
? 2. In what way do the poets’ literary techniques help us to critically
appreciate poems?
3. Why is there no single correct answer in practical criticism of poems?

Read the poem that follows and write/discuss your critical appreciation
of the poem that follows.
Last Lesson of the Afternoon
When will the bell ring, and end this weariness?
How long have they tugged the leash, and strained apart,
My pack of unruly hounds! I cannot start
Them again on a quarry of knowledge they hate to hunt
I can haul them and urge them on no more
No longer now can I endure the brunt
Of the books lie out on the desks; a full threescore
Of several insults of blotted pages, and scrawl
Of slovenly work that they have offered me.
I am sick, and what on earth is the good of it all?
What good to them or me? I cannot see!
I will not waste my soul and my strength for this.
What do I care for all that they do amiss?

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What is the point of this teaching of mine and this?

Learning of theirs? It all goes down the same abyss.

(Source: Adapted From D.H Lawrence’s and Reeves. J., 1977)

Activity 4.4
1. What is the subject matter of the poem?
? 2.
3.
Comment on the use of figurative language in the poem.
How appropriate is the title of the poem?

Did your practical criticism include some of the following observations?

The title suggests a teaching/learning context that is about to end. Usually

both teachers and learners are very tired by the end of the day. In this poem
the teacher considers teaching/learning as a waste of time.

In the first stanza the teacher is just waiting for the bell to liberate him/her. The
imagery of a master (teacher) and pupil (hound/dog) is used. The pupils are
under “leash,” but to the teacher’s disappointment they misbehave as evidenced
by “unruly,” in line 3. The instructional leader is not prepared to take the class
again on a quarry of knowledge they hate to “hunt.” The learners are not only
tired they also hate learning. The word “quarry,” in line 4 stands for any source
from which information can be found. Unfortunately, there seems to be no
way of continuing to pull the “leash,” as the teacher has given up on this group
of learners.

The second stanza shows that the teacher just cannot take it anymore. The
“brunt,” which is the force of a blow, is the equivalent of what the teacher will
experience if he/she attempts to mark the written work. The written work is
so poor that it is described as “insults,”...”scrawl,” which is untidy and
“slovenly,” work. The teacher sees no need/purpose of marking such work.
Nobody benefits from such an exercise.

The fourth stanza is a continuation of the teacher’s stance. There is no need to

waste “soul” and “strength,” anymore. Moreover the teacher no longer cares;
he/she has lost interest. According to the teacher, all the teaching and learning
“go down the same abyss, which is a deep chasm.

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Activity 4.5
Read stanza 3 and answer the following questions.
? 1. Consider what is the meant by “my last dear fuel of life? How does it
contrast with “doors?”
2. Identify the words and phrases which strongly express the teacher’s
sense of futility?
3. Which phrase shows that the teacher shares the pupils’ indifference to
the work?
4. What could be a modern phrase for “it is all my aunt?

4.3.5 An example of a poem for practical criticism

Read the following poem which was written during the Apartheid era in South
Africa, and answer questions that follow.
I must go: Do not mourn
Weep no more
Mama dear, weep no more
How important the lighting
The stroke of the hour of parting
My age urges me
I will go
So please mother dear
Weep no more

That the unborn child

May not see what I see
Or taste what I’ve tasted
This is my journey

Stay well, ma!

(Source: Fezeka Makonese in Ngara (1987)

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Activity 4.4
1. Does the poem show any determination by the speaker to participate
? 2.
in corrective action?
How symbolic is child-bearing in this context?
3. The mother symbol is a common element of African poetry. How
effectively does the symbol work in this poem?

4.4 Summary
Unit 4 has taken you through the strategies of appreciating poetry. The denoted
meaning is the stated and somehow simplistic message. The attention is paid
to deeper meanings which are derived from connotations and implications of
words or phrases. Explanations of connotations have been presented with
examples. All the activities are part and parcel of communication and have
been included helping you decode the messages from the speakers, who are
writers of poetry in this case. Writing essays on poetry as assignments or
examinations has been presented and exemplified together with practical criti-
cism. Poetry is written for specific purposes and the reader has to try and
establish that purpose. This is all because the other elements will all revolve
around that purpose. We described it as’ Intention” in the unit that follows. In
the next unit we elucidate the four kinds of meaning found in poetry.

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References
Hewett, R.P. (ed). (1983). Choice of Poets: An Anthology of Poets, From
Wordsworth to the present day. Bodmin, Cornwall: Robert Hartnoll
Ltd.
Reeves, J. (ed) (1977). Selected poems of [Link], London:
Heinemann.
Stanford J. A. (2002). Responding To Literature: Stories, Poems, Plays
and Essays. North America: McGraw - Hill Companies Inc.
Jacobs. H. E. and Roberts, V.E. (2003). Literature: An Introduction to
Reading and Writing. Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River
New Jersey.
Ngara, E. and Morrison, A. (editors) (2003). Literature: An Introduction
To Reading And Writing, New Jersey 07458 Upper Saddle River.

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Unit Five
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Further Understanding of
Poetry

5.0 Introduction

I n this unit, we consolidate our skills in the critical appreciation of poetry. In

responding to poetry, there is no mathematically correct answer. This is to
say, several forms of correctness are acceptable. However, you are advised
to ensure that you provide textual evidence and examples to show how they
arrive at their responses. Offering details and examples from the literary work
is a fundamental step in learning to think critically about what you read. One
has to carefully consider how he/she is going to convincingly convey his/her
views to the reader. What is it in the poem that makes you think the way you
do? We use practical examples throughout this unit so that we are guided
through the stages of critical appreciation of poetry. It is best for us to engage
active reading all the time. This enables the so much required interaction with
the text - taking more of your questions and observation as you proceed.
Poetry DEPP 156

Literary questions can be discussed meaningfully if you know the poetry. The
lines you learn from poetry are usually a source of genuine satisfaction since
they make up part of their cultural interest. Part of the study of poetry is based
on the sense of enjoyment derived from literature in general. We have to
understand that thinking critically does not necessarily mean thinking in a
negative way or looking for shortcomings in what you read. Rather, it is all
about thoughtfully examining an author’s words and ideas.

5.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 analyse themes, diction and figurative language used in poetry
 describe the techniques used by the poet/speaker to convey his/her
message(s) to the reader
 apply the S.I.F.T. acronym to help you address the essential aspects
of the poem
 make well - considered judgments after re - reading the literary work
 demonstrate your analysis by providing textual evidence

5.2 Literary Appreciation of Poetry

Literary appreciation of poetry is a way of explaining the contribution of aspects
like diction, figurative language and themes, to the overall effect of the poem.
There are different ways of studying poetry but the following are helpful stages:

„ Comprehension: This is the essential preliminary. You have to

understand the text and know the theme(s) of the poem. This
comprehension can only be achieved by your own reading. Can we
paraphrase (that is, say it in our own words) the text? This part is the
equivalent of “S” in our “S.I.F.T,” acronym which is dealt with in greater
detail later in this unit.
„ Appreciation: Appreciation is the establishment of an interaction
between yourself and the person(s)/characters in the text. Check how
the poet uses language to create effect.
„ Criticism: Criticism is an outcome of comprehension and appreciation.
Here, there is no wrong or right answer but the position taken by the
reader has to be supported by textual evidence. On practical criticism,
D. H. Lawrence (1920) wrote, “criticism cannot be a science, It is
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much too personal and is concerned with values that science

ignores...We judge a work of art by its effect(s) on our sincere and
vital emotions....In poetry we want to start by considering how
appropriate the title is.” Both appreciation and criticism are summarised
by Iyengar and Nandakumar,(1990: 91) as follows:
In literary appreciation and criticism, reason....is both necessary and not enough:
So too, sensibility is both necessary and not quite enough. A continuous exposure
To the influence of masterpieces is part of the training that the profession of lite-
-rary criticism needs: and it is through practice, armed with humility as well as
Knowledge, that one’s sensibility is quickened and one’s ratiocinative capacity
is sharpened.

5.3 Theme, Style and Tone

The following features are common in poetry and have to be dealt with
separately so that they are fully understood.

5.3.1 Theme
A theme can be viewed as the unconscious or conscious assumption from
which the poet works. In this broad sense, poems about war, air plane crashes,
suicide bombs and employ the general theme of violence and destruction. On
the other hand, a theme may consist of the particular, identified point or the
concept that the poet/writer sets out to convey. The concept or idea should
be the glue that holds the text (poem) together. In a well crafted poem, the
theme is not merely an assumption or an intention. It is the central idea or
understanding around which the poem is constructed. It then sets up a pattern
which the poet sticks to throughout his/her poem(s). A theme also clarifies
experiences common to all humanity. In many poems, themes remain implicit
or unstated. They can be described as being indirect presentations. The poet
usually chooses to show, rather than to tell.

Read the following poem from Laith Al - Sundooq (1988), an Iraqi soldier –
poet
A Second Poem on War
I embraced war,
Not out of love for her tall figure
Or her sharp teeth,
I just wanted to keep her away
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From the flowers.

And let them fill the meadows
Like torches till day breaks
I embraced war
When my roof fell on my head
And my fingers were so burned
That I could not write or play
a song any more.
(Source: Laith Al – Sundooq in Al – Wasiti (1988:71).

Activity 5.1
1. Discuss what the poem shows, without directly telling it to the readers.
? 2. Examine the effectiveness of the personification and discuss the theme
of the poem.
3. Discuss the factors that motivated the speaker to participate in war.

5.3.2 Style
Sometimes it is not easy to communicate exactly what we intend to. When we
try to express our joy or misery, love or pain, we often get frustrated because
words seem inadequate. So we rely on non – verbal communication in the
form of facial expressions, body gestures and voice inflections in order to
convey and emphasise whatever our words seem incapable of handling. This
is how we often acknowledge our failure/shortcomings in speech. “I really
can’t put it into the right words, but you know what I mean”or” I just don’t
know how to say it.....but you know.... I was really put off!” The problem is
not the inadequacy of words but our difficulties in using them. After all, the
words are always available.

Style is the use and arrangement of language, selection of words, and the
pacing of patterning with which the writer puts them together. Diction, imagery
and syntax are the formal elements of style and are described briefly in this
section. Diction is the writer’s choice of words. Readers often examine the
types of words in a text (poem) and then consider the appropriateness of the
types. Words used may be formal, informal, complex or simple. In examining
appropriateness of diction, we should be aware of denotations (that is, exact
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literal or dictionary meaning) and connotations (that is, the implied meanings)
as well. The implication stems from the association and overtones of meaning
which have become associated with the word or phrase.

5.3.3 Tone
Tone is a term derived from the phrase tone of voice which describes the
shaping of attitudes in poetry. The poet shapes his attitudes through denotations,
connotations, humor, irony, metaphors and similes. In every poem you should
consider the tone. It refers to the methods by which writers/speakers reveal
their attitudes or feelings towards the subject matter, the audience/readers
and the general situation. Your focus should be on the modes of expression
through which attitudes are created and conveyed. More will be covered on
this topic later in this unit.

Activity 5.2
1. Describe the relationship between theme, style and tone of poetry.
? 2. In what ways does the style reflect the attitude of the poet towards the
subject that he/she is writing about?
3. Discuss the role of diction in this poem.

5.4 Communicative Efficacy of Poetry

Communicative efficacy of poetry involves the effectiveness of the poem(s) is
serving communicative roles. It has a lot to do with the transmission of mes-
sages to the readers because of the realisation that poetry is written by peo-
ple, about people and for people. The value and amount of communication
are the two pillars that have to guide our understanding of poetry. Experi-
ences are formed before they are communicated but they take the form they
take largely due to the fact that they may have to be communicated. Poets as
noted earlier on, are involved in communication and are a supreme form of
communicative activity. First and foremost, the poet should get his/her work
right before considering its communities efficacy. One cannot deny the fact
that getting the work “right,” has great communicative consequences. A poem
may satisfy the writer/poet and be right to him/her but it remains of little value
if it is incomprehensible to the public. Thus efficacy for communication is
indeed a crucial part of the poet’s efforts. To date, scholars argue that there is
a very thin line between the artists’ desire to communicate (interact and/or
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transmit ideas) and their desire to produce something with communicative

efficacy.

Read the following poem, and answer the questions that follow. Try to apply
the foregoing guidelines given to you for the understanding of poetry. Many
questions are to be addressed as a way of showing how thorough the
appreciation of poetry should be.
A Brazier in the Street
Around the smoke - billowing brazier
huddled four urchins, smoking
cigarette stubs and swopping stories
like seamen telling tales over a bottle of rum

The wintry air nipped their navels

as a calf would suck the nipple
Smoke, blowing into bleary eyes,
and waving flames fashioned
their bodies into crouching silhouettes

One yawned -
and rubbed his sleep - laden eyes
and mumbled as if in a dream
“I once ate a loaf of bread with nothing…”

Then a buxom woman, blanketed

against the blistering chill,
came out of the house
and carried the red - hot brazier inside
to cook her supper.

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And quicker than a rabid dog

leaps to swallow its tail,

the starless night gaped

and gulped down the foursome.

(Source: M. O. Mtshali) 1971)

Activity 5.2
1. Why did the boys get together?
? 2. What are urchins? Remember the difference(s) between denotations
and connotations of words.
3. Comment on the four boys’ experiences/socio -economic status/
situation? Use as many adjectives as you can and support them (with
the text).
4. What evidence is there to show that the woman in stanza three has a
much better life style than the four boys?
5. What are the implications of “the starless night gaped and gulped down
the foursome?”
6. Examine the sound effect of the following phrases taken from stanza
two.
“nipped their navels”
|”blowing into bleary eyes”
“gapped and gulped”
“blanketed against the blistering chill”

Read the poem that follows and answer the questions that follow. It is yet
another experience of the effects created and conveyed by writers. The poem
deals with a totally different theme, uses a different style and has a different
tone from the poem that you have just gone through (Brazier in the Street).
Some words have been underlined to assist you as you appreciate the poem.
Pledging My Soul
When I was a boy
I climbed onto your granite breasts
Smooth and round

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I trailed my body
from the small of your back
to your yielding neck
The cup of your breasts
was my pillow
the rivers of your tears
drowned me down in your depths
and the smooth plain of your flat belly
yielded to mine.
I was yours
And you were mine.

Now a man
in exile from the warmth of your arms
and the milk of your teeth
the breath of your secret whispers in my ears
shall I not stride back to you with haste
rout all my enemies and bind the wicked husbandmen?
Shall I not kneel to kiss the grains of your sand
to rise naked before you - a bowl of incense
and the smoke of my nakedness shall be
an offering to you
pledging my soul.

(Source: Charles Marechera)

Some observations

The title of the poem is indicative of spiritual devotion and sacrifice. From the
first line, it is clear that the poet is full of nostalgia as he looks back at his
childhood. He was very close to his mother and the last four lines of the first
stanza are strongly suggestive of sexual, physical concord especially where/

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when the mother’s flat belly yielded to the boy’s. The two were certainly
committed to each other and mutually accepting each other, like lovers do.

Activity 5.4
1. Who is the speaker in this poem?
? 2. What words show that the poem depict a vulnerable person’s
relationship with some source of security?
3. Does the speaker still have access to those breasts? Why?
4. What tells us that the mother is no longer alive?
5. Do you think the title is appropriate to what is contained in the poem?

5.5 How to Analyse a Poem

In order for you to analyse a poem, you have to use a systematic approach.
Language, as it is used in poetry, has several tasks to perform. For appreciation
of poetry, we can consider four types of language functions, so we can come
up with four kinds of meaning that is sense, intention, feeling and tone. Following
Richards’ observations (in Lodge - 1976) about four kinds of meaning in
language, the acronym (SIFT) can be a very useful guideline in the analysis of
poetry since it addresses the vital aspects.

The acronym stands for:

„ Sense
„ Intention
„ Feeling
„ Tone
Let us now consider them one by one.

5.5.1 Sense
The most striking challenging task/ obligation/ challenge of reading is that of
establishing the meaning of a text. Criticism revolves around questions like:
What the poem is about? What it is saying to the reader(s)? What is it that we
are making out? These are the master-keys to all the problems of criticism
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which you will use to unlock the chambers and corridors of the meaning(s) of
poetry. There are several kinds of meaning of poetry. The language of poetry
has several tasks to perform simultaneously and this idea has to be understood,
to increase chances of doing the right thing(s) when you start critically
appreciating poetry. For this programme, a division of language functions will
suffice. Most speeches can be meaningfully perceived from four points of
view and we have already dwelt on the first one.

People speak/write in order to say something. When you listen/read, you

expect some meaning to be conveyed from the utterances or from the written
text. Writers, (poets included) use words to direct their readers/ listeners’
attention to some state of affairs, to present to them concepts for consideration
and to stimulate some thoughts about the subject matter. It is advisable that
the poem is read out aloud over and over and over again. All the words are
carefully examined in terms of their arrangement, their relationship, and their
meanings. Interpretation of poetry does not have one correct answer like one
would expect in quantitative subjects like Mathematics.

5.5.2 Intention
This is the poet’s aim, conscious or unconscious. It is the very effect he/she is
endeavouring to promote. Normally, the poet speaks for a purpose and it is
the purpose that determines the choice and use of words. The language used
has great impact on the poem. The poets’ intention may be to enlighten, excite,
remind, praise, reprimand, protest or merely expose. This function has to be
established so that accurate decisions are made about the poet’s success.
You have to know what the poet /writer is trying to do, in order to be able to
estimate his/her extent of success or failure .It is very much like establishing
the objective(s) so that the performance appraisal is based/ judged against
some target.

5.5.3 Feeling
Feelings about the subject matter under discussion are part and parcel of the
communication, whether written or spoken. You will certainly discover that
poets reflect particular attitudes, biases, some personal flavor for/against
whatever they write about .The poet’s attitude towards the state of affairs or
the incidents(s) that are referred to/described can be deduced from the
language used . Emotions such as regret, anger, joy are often revealed. When
you read/ listen to poetry, you are bound to identify these feelings, rightly or
wrongly .This is because readers of poetry can never be 100% accurate
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about what the writer intended. The reader has to be able to identify how
emotions are evoked by the poet. There are specific techniques that poets
use and it is not enough to identify the technique. One must go on to explain
the effect/impact of the technique used. Fortunately, there is room for
reasonable interpretation in most poetry.

5.5.4 Tone
Naturally, the speaker/writer of poetry has an attitude towards his/her readers
or listeners. This is why he/she chooses and arranges his/her words differently
in recognition of his/her relation to his/her readers .In other words ,words and
phrases are presented in a unique manner to suit different contexts/audiences.
The tone of the poem indicates his/her awareness of the relationship with the
audience/ readers; his/her sense of where he/she places himself/herself in relation
to people he she is addressing. However, at times writers/poets unwittingly
reveal attitudes they are not intentionally willing to express or expose.

Some authors have extended the acronym SIFT to SIFTSEI, to include

Symbols, Emotion and Impression. However, readers of poetry are able to
find out the extent to which symbols or symbolic concepts are part of the
feeling(s) of the poet. An explanation of symbols leads to the feelings because
deeper meanings are brought out. The “E,” for emotion is also part and parcel
of feelings and does not warrant to be separated from “F.” Impression, also
leads us back to intention because the “value judgment on the effectiveness of
the poem,” which Tirivangana et al (2012) refer to, cannot be handled by one
who is not aware of the poets intention. In other words, the extension of the
acronym is repetitive and therefore unnecessary.

The following poem gives you an opportunity to apply/make use of the acronym
S.I.F.T that has just been described. Read it carefully.

MEN IN CHAINS

The train stopped

At a country station

Through sleep-curtained eyes

I peered through the frosty window

And saw six men!

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Men shorn
Of all human honour
Like sheep after shearing
Bleating at the blistering wind,
“Go away! Cold wind! Go away!
Can’t you see we are naked?”
They hobbled into the train
On bare feet wrists handcuffed, ankles manacled
With steel rings like cattle at the abattoirs
Shying away from the trapdoor

One man with a head

Shaven clean as a potato
Whispered to the rising sun,
A red eye wiped by a tattered
Handkerchief of clouds
“Oh Dear Sun!
Won’t you warm my heart
With hope?”
The train went on its way to nowhere.

(Source: O. Mtshali 1972)

Activity 5.5
1. Read the poem again and comment on the way its images define the
? 2.
nature of the experiences which the speaker (poet) is conveying.
Use the S.I.F.T technique to appreciate the poem.
3. What mood is created by the poet?

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5.6 Preparing To Respond To Poetry in Writing

When you are writing an assignment about a poem, it is very important to
have a clear notion of what you are being asked to do. Read that assignment
question carefully before you start planning how you will fulfill it .While it is
true that there are no right or wrong answers in responding to literature
questions, it is also true that we need to have correct ways of answering.
There are recommended tools of analysis, which are immensely helpful. The
following questions are not a prescription but will help you plan:

„ What is the assignment asking you to focus on? (For example, on the
images of urban squalor or on the concept of heroism?)
„ Does the assignment ask for a particular approach or presentation?
For example, are you being asked to compare? To explicate? To
evaluate?
„ Does the assignment specify length?
„ Is it possible to use the “S.I.F.T” Approach?

5.6.1 Writing to respond

A response paper can take different forms but the pivotal purpose is to help
those who read it to understand the connections you made. Why did this
poem evoke anger or sorrow? What details affected you strongly? You need
to show exactly how you felt as you were reading the literary work. Textual
evidence makes your response more convincing. It is not enough to simply
paraphrase the poem. This is more about the first impressions created by the
poem. Depending on the level of education and perhaps the teacher’s plans,
learners can be asked to write response papers as a way of preparing them
for more challenging tasks.

5.6.2 Comparing poems

At times you may be asked to make comparisons between two poems or
between excerpts of poems. The following principles are meant to help you
through:

„ Listing and outlining are useful strategies for planning a comparison

paper.
„ A comparison should not just list the similarities and differences. It goes
on to explain the impact/reason for the differences or similarities noted.
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„ Your instruction should make it clear that you know how you are going
to meet the demands of the question: For example, “The themes in
Musaemura Zimunya’s poem and that of Dambudzo Marechera poem
are concerned with moral decay in post Colonial Zimbabwe....”Discuss,
with relevant examples for illustration.
„ Make sure that transition between paragraphs and between sections of
your answer show the coherence - the comparison and the contrasts -
you want to make.
„ Present a conclusion which evaluates the evidence provided by the rest
of your essay or simply show the significance of the comparison that
you made.

5.6.3 Write to analyse

An analysis considers parts (for example, stanzas) in relation to the whole
poem to which they belong. A literary analysis often focuses on one or more
features of literature, including the following:

„ Sound (rhyme and rhythm)

„ Structure (patterns of lines and stanzas)
„ Figurative language (for example personification, symbols, metaphors
and similes).
„ Thematic concerns - what is this poem about
Moreover, an analysis shows how the elements being discussed contribute to
the whole meaning of the work. Hence each part of the discussion must relate
to a clear central idea. We repeat an analysis is not a paraphrase. Instead it is
an explanation of how the literary work communicates.

5.6.4 Writing to explicate

The following extract is from Paul Simon, “Kodachrome”, in Mailloux(1982).
Read it carefully.
When I think back on all the crap I learned
In high school,
It’s a wonder I can think at all.
The lack of education hasn’t hurt me none.
I can read the writing on the wall.
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The ability to read is all that the speaker of the poem (above) has gained and
he is not regretting that because reading is an essential skill. We are involved
in reading on the walls, explicating poems in lecture – rooms or classrooms,
making sense of statutory instruments or national constitutions! Reading,
explicating and making sense are the words used to refer to the activity of
“interpretation.” The Oxford Dictionary says “interpret,” means “expound
the meaning of (something mysterious), to render (words writings) clear or
explicit; to elucidate”

Explication is one form of analysis. The word “explicate,” means to unfold.

This kind of unfolding is determined by how well we read. When you answer
an assignment/examination question like the following:

“What exactly does the speaker say in this poem? And how does she/he say
it? Describe how the central idea of the poem unfolds as you move from one
stanza to the next,” your answer is an explication.

So an explication explains in detail how the literary work communicates to the

reader. I consider sound, structure, figurative language and definition of words.
Like an analysis, an explication is kept coherent by a central idea. It works
sequentially from the first to the last stanza of a poem. It has an introduction
which reflects the main idea of the work and also has conclusion, which sums
up the meaning that has been unfolded for the reader.

5.6.5 Writing to evaluate

Each reader must develop his or her own criteria for evaluation. The criteria
should come from what we learnt in this module and what we have experienced,
observed, and heard. You can now read poems from any anthology and apply
the following guidelines for evaluating the poems.

„ Identify the beliefs and values expressed in the work.

„ Think about the criteria you will use to evaluate those beliefs and values.
„ List your reasons for supporting, questioning or refuting these values
and beliefs.
„ Re - read your work to ascertain that you are responding to values and
beliefs.

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Activity 5.6
1. List any four literary techniques that are commonly used in analysing
? 2.
poetry.
Compare and contrast the different approaches to essay writing.
3. How far does poetry serve as both a mirror reflection and critic of
society?

5.7 Summary
By now you should have seen how poetry stimulates the readers’ imagination
by demanding that we (readers) visualise events, places and characters that
are often outside the realm of common experience(s).The unit has discussed
the four major guidelines that help you to fully understand poetry: What the
poet/writer says (sense);The poet’s attitude to what he/she is talking
about(feeling); The poet’s attitude to his/her listeners/readers( tone) and the
poet’s aim (Intention). You have seen how we get to participate in a world
which is not readily accessible to us. Poetry also attempts to register, organise
and to interpret the nature and content of human experience. We respond to
poetry not only with our imaginations and intellects. We have seen from the
examples used in the previous unit and in this unit, that poetry concentrates
on, compresses and intensifies oral or written language in order to render a
particular experience. It involves readers in the sounds of language.” The
value of writing about poetry can never be over - emphasised. Both the
process of writing and the final product result in the satisfaction of learning
new ways to perceive, to speculate, to wonder and to know. The approaches
to writing about literature have been given the attention they deserve.

We have to understand that thinking critically does not necessarily mean

thinking in a negative way or looking for shortcomings in what you read.
Rather, it is all about thoughtfully examining an author’s words and ideas.

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References
Al – Wasiti, S.D. ed (1988). Ten Iraqi Soldiers. Bahgdad: Dar Al – Ma,
Mun
Iyengar, R.S. and Nandakumar, P. (1990). Introduction to the Study of
English Literature. New Delhi. Sterling Publishers.
Mailloux, S. (1982). Interpretive Conventions: The Reader in the Study
of American Fiction. University Of Chicago Press.
Mtshali, O. M. (1972). Sounds of a Cowhide Drum. Oxford: University
Press Oxford.
Tirivangana, A. [Link]. (2012). Literary Appreciation: Module AEC 228.
Harare. Zimbabwe Open University.

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Unit Six
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Figurative Language

6.0 Introduction

T his unit’s thrust is on the use of figurative language by poets. Figurative

language encompasses the words or expressions that carry more than
their literal meaning. We take you through the metaphors (comparisons of
unlike objects). For example, you can say to the person you love: “you are
my sweet chocolate.” In the unit we also describe comparisons of unlike
things which use words “like” or “as.” For example, “You love me as if I were
your pet,”/”He is like a church mouse.”

Together we explore how poets utilise personification. When fully understood,

personification is a form of figurative language. At times a writer repeats a
word or image so many times in a literary work that you begin to wonder
why. The word then becomes a symbol, standing for more than its literal
meaning. We advise that you practise literary appreciation as often as you
can and you will see how poetry is demystified and enjoyed.
Poetry DEPP 156

6.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 identify the various forms of figurative language and describe their effects
 describe a convincing literary appreciation of poems
 discuss any poem that you choose to read
 describe how and why poetry “plays around with words”

6.2 The Meaning of Symbolism

Symbolism is the representation of reality on one level of reference by a
corresponding reality on another. Like an image, a symbol is concrete. However,
extra linguistic reference and suggestion distinguish the symbol from an image.
Moreover, the strength of a symbol depends on its ability to simultaneously
bring several meanings into the poem. In literature, even apparently ordinary
things may acquire symbolic value; that is everyday objects and actions may
be understood to have meanings that are beyond themselves, bigger than
themselves. Some symbols are widely recognised and therefore are considered
as cultural or universal. Other symbols are contextual in the sense that they
take on symbolic meaning only in their individual context/situation. Some settings
may be taken as symbols through which the author expresses ideas. Symbolism
refers to the use of symbols in works of art (poetry included). A symbol has a
meaning in, and of itself, but it also represents something else, like the flag of
a country. Symbols are very common in poetry. It cannot be denied that
poetry depends more heavily on symbols because it comprises more forms
than other genres.

Symbolism refers to the use of symbols in works of art (poetry included). A

symbol has a meaning in and of itself, but it also represents something else,
like the flag of a country. Symbols are very common in poetry. It cannot be
denied that poetry depends more heavily on symbols because it comprises
more forms of symbols than other genres.

As you read poetry, you are expected to be able to identify symbols and what
they represent. You will be guided by trying to start by establishing whether
the symbol is cultural or contextual. How does the symbol affect your
understanding? Does the symbol add strength or depth to the poem? For two
or more symbols, consider issues such as these: How do the symbols connect
with each other? What additional meanings do the symbols provide?

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Symbolism goes beyond the close referral of word - to - thing; it is more like
a lens through which one can glimpse the extensive world outside. Since poetry
is compact, its descriptions and portrayals of experience are brief. Symbolism
is therefore, one of its primary features. After reading several poems you will
agree that the use of symbols is a way of moving outward and extending
ideas. Universal symbols are generally drawn from nature, for example the
animals, the seasons and vegetation. Contextual or authorial symbols are
meaningful only within individual works.

Read the poem below then attend to the activity below. This should help us
consolidate our understanding of symbolism.
The Road Not Taken
Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,
And sorry I could not travel both
And be one traveler, long I stood
And looked down one as far as I could
To where it bent in the undergrowth;

Then took the other, as just as fair,

And having perhaps the better claim,
Because it was grassy and wanted wear;
Though as for that the passing there
Had worn them really about the same.

And both morning equally lay

In leaves no step had trodden back,
Oh, I kept the first for another day!
Yet knowing how way leads onto way,

I doubled if I should ever come back.

I shall be telling this with a sigh

Somewhere ages and ages hence:

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Two roads diverged in a wood and I –

I took the one less traveled by,

And that has made all the difference:

Source: Robert Frost in Hewett (1983)

Activity 6.1
1. What does the word “road” symbolise in this poem?
? 2. Robert Frost not focusing on “The Road Taken.” What feelings are
aroused in him?
3. Why yellow?
4. What is implied by “undergrowth?” Give textual evidence.

6.3 Types of Symbolism in Poetry

Poets do not just use symbols for no reason. Instead, symbols are structurally
important and meaningful first and then essentially symbolic. You will find
symbols in single words, and also in actions, scenes settings and characters.
Let us consider the different forms of symbolism.

6.3.1 Symbolism of action

It is not just words but also actions that can be symbolic. Remember the
words used in the poem “Pledging My Soul,” earlier in this Module. The baby
found security in the mother figure. Read that poem “Pledging My Soul” in
order to remind yourself of the actions that are symbolic.

6.3.2 Symbolism of scenes and settings

Settings and scenes create the place, time, and mood of the context but they
may also be symbolic. Think of the poems that you read earlier in this module
and see how the setting is symbolic. For instance, the poem entitled, “Men in
Chains,” is portrayed in a setting which symbolizes the human beings in chains.
This symbolises the suffering of prisoners. In addition to being in chains the
weather is also harsh to them and this symbolises pain and discomfort meted
by the environment.
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6.3.3 Symbolism of characters

Poets also devise characters or people as symbols representing ideas or val-
ues, as shown by the street children in “Brazier in the Street.” The boys are
symbolic of the abject poverty found at the extreme end of the socio – eco-
nomic echelons of that country.

6.3.4 Symbolism of situation(s)

A poem’s situations, circumstances and conditions may also be symbolic.
The position of the prisoners in the poems we have used for illustrations so
far, make the prisoners vulnerable and helpless. The teaching/learning situation
that is described in the poem entitled “Last lesson of the Afternoon,” is symbolic
of a dying profession. There is no motivation for the school teacher to carry
on. The poet is not confining his/her work to that specific situation. He is
actually sending signals to the system of education.

Now read the following poem and answer the questions that follow:
At Work
Dozing, dozing dozing
Why, why should he not?
At eternity o’clock
Still not retired
Age unknown.
But rust will tell
When he should go
Maybe he will awake
Mince – meat of the machine
For there is no other way
His children, no corpse to bury
Only the blood – moistened blade
To gaze at for memories

Source: Hove, C. (1985)

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Activity 6.2
1. Giving examples, identify the different forms of symbolism and how
? 2.
they are used in the above poem.
What evidence is there to show that the man is aged ?
3. How would you describe thematic concerns of this poem?

6.4 Diction
In poetry word choice encompasses a whole range of techniques which a
poet can utilise. Imagery, symbolism, figures of speech and sound are part of
diction. Figures of speech like oxymoron, simile, metaphor, personification
and metonymy can also be used. If you check the explanations, definitions
and examples given in Unit 1, all these technical terms will get very familiar to
you.

Diction is a pivotal dimension of style. Words should be accurate and

comprehensive, so that all actions, scenes and ideas are clearly understood.
Poets make conscious and unconscious decisions about diction because they
always try to use only the suitable and appropriate words. Their diction is
either specific and concrete or general and abstract. Most poets employ
mixtures of words in these categories because of their intention to arrive at
general observations and abstract conclusions from specific situations.

Special types of diction include idiom, dialect, slang and jargon. The word
“idiom,” originally meant “making one’s own.”It refers to words phrases and
expressions that are common and acceptable in a particular language. Standard
English language idioms are part and parcel of our thoughts and are often
taken for granted.

6.5 Similes and Metaphors

Similes and metaphors are key figures of speech. We shall deal with them
separately in order to understand them better. Both these figures of speech
are used to compare items, processes or places. Literary study facilitates
close attention to language. You are advised to direct your interpretive efforts
to figures of speech – similes and metaphors, metonyms and personification(s).
Your understanding of how such figures work will allow you to bring out what
a poem is all about and how it achieves its objectives.
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6.5.1 Simile
A simile is a direct comparison usually introduced by the word, “as” or “like.”
For example, “Mbonisi is like an angel.”

Such a comparison shows that there are characteristics found in Mbonisi that
are similar to those of an angel - “loving and very kind.”

A simile shows that something unknown can be understood because it is similar

to something known. It illustrates the similarity of the known to something
unknown or to be explained. While a metaphor merges identities, a simile
shows the resemblance(s). For instance, somebody may say, “That tutor is
like a thorn in the flesh,” or “Angie is like sunshine in my life.” You can see that
similes are different from metaphors in the way they are introduced /preceded
by “like” and “as.”

6.5.2 Metaphor
A metaphor is a form of comparison that equates two naturally dissimilar
objects due to characteristics that are transferable from one to the other. For
example, “Mbonisi is an angel” would mean what the example of our simile
conveys. However, the metaphor tends to be more powerful since it re -
defines the object, item, person in question.

A metaphor equates known objects or actions with something that is unknown

or something to be explained. For instance, somebody may say, “This tutor is
a thorn in my flesh!” or “Angie is the apple of my eye.” The equation of the
metaphor explains and also illuminates the feeling/relationship/perception.
Metaphors actually enrich the language that is found in poem. Try to recall the
poems that we went through especially the one entitled “The last lesson of the
Afternoon.” The speaker, who is a school teacher says “...my pack of unruly
hounds...” when describing the pupils that are in his class. “Unruly hounds” is
a metaphor because the phrase usually refers to dogs that cannot be controlled
by their master. The metaphor asks us to equate our knowledge of pets
(something that is known /familiar to us) to the situation of futility that has
developed in the teaching /learning environment.

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Activity 6.3
1. Read the following poem ,’The Lamb’ by William Blake and then
? 2.
analyse the use of similes and metaphors that are used.
Critically examine the figures of speech used therein.
3. How symbolic is the lamb in this poem?

THE LAMB
Little lamb, who made thee?
Dost thou know who made thee?
Gave thee life, bid thee feed
By the stream and over the mead;
Gave thee clothing of delight;
Softest clothing, wooly, bright;
Gave thee such a tender voice
Making all the vales rejoice?
Little Lamb, who made thee?
Dost thou know who made thee?

Little lamb, who made thee?

Little lamb, who made thee?
He is called by thy name.
For he calls himself a lamb.
He is meek, and he is mild;
He became a little child.

I a child, and thou a lamb

We are called by his name
Little Lamb, God bless thee!
Little Lamb, God bless thee!

Source: William Blake in Hewitt (1983)

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Critique

This poem might be taken to be very simple, especially after the first and
quick reading. It is both a celebration and a critique of the simplistic, naive
thinking of children. The speaker in this poem is a child, talking to a lamb. The
child explains that both the lamb and the child are products of the creative
power of Christ, who is a significant representative of innocence. Jesus Christ,
the child and lamb share a moral quality – they belong to the concept which
Christ verified by becoming a child and taking on the name of the lamb.

The simple language of the poem reinforces the child‘s innocent insight. The
poems figurative language complicates the poem. Figures of speech twist the
meaning of a word. The use of “clothing” in stanza 1, line 5 makes the lamb
seem human. God gives the lamb its life, its clothing, its “tender voice.” Both
the speaker and the lamb are taken care of by the generous God.

6.6 Imagery
According to the Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary imagery is,
“imaginative language that produces pictures in the minds of people reading
or listening.”There is a very thin line between figurative language and imagery
because images are created by figurative language. Grover (1988) points out
that poetry does not merely serve to convey information. It goes further and
suggests mood and atmosphere, images, feelings and attitudes.

Imagery involves using images to create impressions. In figurative language,

we are letting one image suggest something else. Similes and metaphors can
be used in figurative language. In other words, an image is a “picture in words.”
Through visual images, we almost “see” what the writer presents especially in
descriptive poetry. Sometimes the poet may also wish us to think we are
hearing or smelling or even touching something. An image can also refer to
and describe any sort of the four senses (that is, taste, touch, hearing, smell).
Functions of imagery include:

„ Establishing the context and the mood of a poem.

„ Providing a structural organisation of a poem.
„ Supporting or contributing to the movement and action, as well as the
theme and meaning of the poem.
„ Suggesting deeper levels of awareness and meaning.

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Grover (1988) points out that poetry does not merely serve to convey
information. It goes further and suggests mood and atmosphere, images,
feelings and attitudes.

6.7 Types of Imagery

There are several types of imagery, namely, visual imagery, auditory imagery,
olfactory and (tactile imagery) kinetic and kinesthetic imagery.

6.7.1 Visual imagery

The most common type of imagery is visual, which appeals to the sense of
sight and is the key to our imagination. Some of the metaphors and similes
that we came across is the last activity are visual. However, poets also use
tactile imagery, which appeals to the sense of touch; aural imagery which
appeals to our sense of hearing; olfactory imagery which deals with our sense
of smell; gustatory imagery which appeals to our sense of taste. Images are
concrete and this is why poetry is so powerful and intense. You are called
upon to take note of the relationship of Imagery to Ideas and attitudes. Images
do not just elicit impressions. By the authentication effects of the vision and
perceptions underlying them, images give you new ways of seeing the world.
As form mental pictures from poet’s images, you respond with appropriate
attitudes and feelings. It is not surprising that the most frequently occurring
literary imagery is about those objects /activities that we can visualize. Mental
pictures are created in the reader who is following and understanding the
poem.

Let us read the following stanza from a poem by Ben Johnson in Jacobs and
Roberts, (2003)
Have you seen but a bright lily grow
Before rude hands have touched it?
Have you marked but the fall of snow?
Or have tasted of the bag of the bee?
Oh so white, oh so soft, oh so sweet is she

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Activity 6.4
1. What do you visualise from reading the poem?
? 2.
3.
How do the images address the central idea of the poem?
Comment on how the rhyme scheme adds to the effect of the stanza.

6.7.2 Auditory imagery

Auditory imagery is the language of sound and so it is aural. Auditory images
trigger the readers’ experiences with sound. This is where rhyme and rhythm
work best. Repetition of certain sounds creates moods or effects as desired
by the poet.

6.7.3 Olfactory, gustatory tactile imagery

Olfactory imagery evokes the sense of smell; gustatory imagery has to with
taste and tactile imagery involves the sense of touch. Gustatory Images are
less common than those of sight and sound. Images of touch and texture are
not frequently used because touch is not easy to render except in terms of
effects. The Poem, “A Red, Red Rose” suggests the odour of Roses. Read it
and confirm or dismiss this observation.
A Red, Red Rose
O my Love’s like a red rose
That’s newly sprung in June O my Love’s like the melodie
That’s sweetly play’d in tune

As fair as art thou, my bonnie lass

So deep in Love am I.
And I will love thee still, my Dear
Till the seas go dry (sic)

Till the seas go dry my Dear (sic)

And the rocks melt with the sun
And I will love thee still my Dear While the sands of life shall run

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And fare thee well my only Love!

And fare the well, for a while!
And I will come again my Love
Tho’ it were ten thousand miles!

6.7.4 Kinetic and kinesthetic imagery

Both kinetic and kinesthetic imagery refer to motion and activity. Did you
know that references to movement are also images? Images of general motion
are kinetic (remember the motion pictures are described as “cinema”). The
term Kinesthetic is applied to human or animal movement. Imagery of motion
is closely related to visual images because motion is often visible.

Activity 6.5
1. Consider the metaphors that are used and show how they enhance
? 2.
your understanding of the poem.
How is the sense of smell evoked in the poem? Use textual evidence
to support your answer.
3. Any auditory imagery in the poem? Use textual evidence to answer.

6.8 Personification
According to Roberts and Jacobs, (2003), personification is the treatment of
an abstraction as if it were a person, endowing it with human qualities. Objects,
animals, and natural events can be personified. Personification should not be
confused with animation, which is giving life like, but not specifically human
traits to non human objects and events. In a broad sense, personification is a
metaphor since it suggests an identity of two different things. For instance, the
expression, “money talks” is personification which also implies that money is
a human being. To further understand the technique of personification let us
look at the three extracts that follow.

Extract A.

Extract of a Poem: “Black Cry,” by Craveirinha (1985)

“I am coal
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and must burn, exploited

burn alive like tar, my brother
until no more your mine, boss.” (page 103).

In this extract, the poet takes the image of coal, representing both the mineral
and the miner who digs for it, and converts it into a lump of coal (a defiant
symbol of Negritude) which has been a source of wealth for the exploiter
who tears it brutally from the earth. The coal becomes a fiery force that will
turn into ashes of vengeance.

Extract B.

There is enough

drought and dust here. I count the footprints of

the tick, now all glossy

from sucking the sick dog

Source: Mahoso, T (1989)

The extract is characterised by the presence of death and sickness. The tick
is healthy as evidenced by the term “glossy.” However, it is sad to note that
the tick prospers where the dog perishes. This echoes Mahoso’s concern
and protest against exploitation and parasitic tendencies of colonialists. In the
extract the ticks represent the coloniser, while the sick dogs are the locals.
Extract C.
Death, Be Not Proud
Death, be not proud, though some have called thee
Mighty and dreadful. For thou art not so
For those whom thou think’st thou dost overthrow
Die not, poor Death, nor yet canst thou kill me
Death, thou shall die
(Adapted from: John Donne in Robert and Jacobs)

In this extract the speaker denounces the power of death. He/she claims that
even those that have been taken by death are actually not dead. This could be
referring to life after death. Moreover, the speaker goes onto boast that he /
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she can stand against the power of death. So directing all these words to
death personifies death, because people normally speak to other people.

6.9 Other Figures Of Speech

We have so far witnessed how imagery stimulates our imagination and recalls
(images) of sights, sound, taste, smells, sensation of touch and motions. Through
the use of metaphors and similes, readers are made to personalise the
experience being described. Strong demands are made on our creative
imaginations by metaphorical language. Readers develop their own mental
pictures in response to metaphors and similes. Associated attitudes and feelings
are also developed. We hope you will readily associate the function of
metaphorical language with the “S.I.F.T” approach that was dealt with in Unit
5.

However, there are other figures of speech like paradox, which you are likely
to come across as you teach/learn poetry. A paradox is a figurative device
through which something apparently wrong or contradictory is shown to be
truthful and non – contradictory. Paradoxes can be used to depict uncertainty
or contradicting commitments.

Activity 6.6
1. Describe the three types of symbolism and explain how they help poems
? 2.
create immediate impact.
Distinguish metaphors from similes, using concrete examples.
3. Why is imagery more pronounced in poetry than in other genres of
literature?
4. To what extent do you agree that personification brings themes closer
to readers of poetry than does other genres?

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6.10 Summary
In this unit we have dealt at length with figures of speech (figurative language).
You should have noticed by now that figurative language is largely metaphorical.
Figurative language describes organised patterns of comparison that deepen,
broaden, extend and emphasise meaning. In the unit we covered symbolism
and its forms, as a way of buttressing your understanding of the technique.
Appropriate illustrations were included to give you an opportunity to test the
extent to which you have grasped figurative language. Outstanding figures of
speech that are metaphors and similes were also addressed in a simultaneous
manner. Personification was not left out because poets have the freedom to
personify in order to create certain effects.

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References
Grover, J. (1988). English Literature. Harlow: Longman
Hove, C. (1985). Red Hills of Home. Gweru, Mambo Press.
Mahaso, T. (1989). Footprints About The Bantustan. Harare, Nehanda
Publishers.
McLaughlin and Lentricchia (1999). Critical Terms for Literary Study,
University of Wisconsin.
Roberts, V.E. and Jacobs, H.E. (2003). Literature: An Introduction to
Reading and Writing. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education Inc.
Staunton, I. (1988). Words in Action: Introduction: Introducing Ideas
Through Literature, Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing House.

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Unit Seven
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Role and Function of Poetry

7.0 Introduction

I n this unit we perceive the genre of poetry to be serving important purposes

in communicating with the readers. We recognise that the process of
communication begins with ideas that are encoded and transmitted by the
sender (who is the speaker, poet, and writer in this case). Different channels
are used to ensure the message gets to the listener (receiver), who decodes
the symbols in order to understand the ideas. In this unit we also recognise
the roles and functions of poetry as a means of communication. It pays attention
to liberation poetry; protest poetry within borders as compared to protest
poetry outside borders. Such a comparison brings out some pronounced and
deliberate differences in style, tone and diction used by poets. We go on to
explore socio - economic and political themes in the Post - Colonial Era,
picking examples from former colonies of Africa.
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7.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 define the role and function of poetry in society
 explain major thematic concerns that mark specific political eras
 describe the common style(s) used by writers to protest against
colonisers
 analyse the more direct protest language by poets in exile

7.2 Role of Poetry

Poetry, according to Ngugi, (1984), cannot escape from the intense political
cultural and ideological struggles in a society. Poets can only choose one or
the other side of the conflicting groups : the side of the colonizers who exploit
and oppress the local people or the side of those who are victimised. In a
way every poet is a writer in politics. There is no chance of remaining neutral.
Like the politician, the poet trades in words.

7.2.1 Negritude
Negritude is a literary movement which poets used to raise awareness,
protection and development of African cultural values. The poet’s concern
and commitment to society is shown t by the work of poets like Aime Cesaire,
Leon Damas and Senghor. The basic objective of the literary and cultural
movement was the need to define black aesthetics and black consciousness
against a background of racial injustice and segregation. The word “negritude”
connotes “blackness” and has been employed in literary discourse for decades.
According to Liyong, T (1969), Charles Lamb used the word in 1822 in the
essay entitled “The Praise of Chimney sweepers, Aime Cesaire (1962) used
the term in his poem “Return to My Native Land.”

Even Wole Soyinka’s work exhibits all that negritude was about. Negritude
was founded in the thirties by three black intellectuals: Leopold Sedar Senghor
(Senegal), Aime Cesaire (Mozambique) and Leon Damas (French Guyana).
The basic thrust of the movement was to define black aesthetics and black
consciousness against a background of racial injustice and discrimination
worldwide. The abolition of slave trade motivated some individuals to explore
avenues through which the unique contributions of the black man could be
better recorded and valued. Senghor (1981) defines negritude as “the
awareness, defiance and development of African cultural values.”
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It developed from the need to emphasise distinctness, to pull away and stand
apart from the white man’s culture. It drew a line between fundamental and
more superficial aspects of culture. Less sophisticated supporters of negritude
stressed the aspect of traditionalism. Negritude was basically concerned with
literature as a medium for asserting the cultural affinities of the African spirit to
a particular regional culture and to other Africans in general. Opponents of
negritude rejected the need for and the viability of an all - embracing theory.
Instead, they preferred to recognise political and racial situations that had
common elements across the African continent. Today negritude is no longer
a powerful force, but the critical attitudes and ideas it fosters, though often
attacked, are still influential.

A theme which features prominently in Senghor’s poetry is the celebration of

the dead ancestors. His work reflects that the dead are revered by the living
for their ability to ward off evil or protect the living and that not much can be
achieved without the support of the ancestors.

7.2.2 Liberation Poetry

Poetry like other genres of literature has a role to play in the struggle for
liberation. In Mozambique and Angola poetry did play a role in liberation. In
Zimbabwe’s war of liberation, music and poetry played a vital role. The songs
motivated fighters; since they were effective means of conscientising the masses
and they also brought new cultural awareness among the supporters of the
liberation struggle. Rev. Banana Canaan in Pongwen (1982) saw that the
“Chimurenga songs educated the masses about the causes of the liberation
war, identified the enemies and emphasised the significance of unity and co -
operation in the prosecution of the struggle for national independence. The
anthology “And Now The Poets Speak,” which was published immediately
after the attainment of independence in Zimbabwe shows just how effectively
poetry played its part in the liberation war. Even in the Republic of South
Africa, poetry and songs helped to express and communicate feelings about
life under apartheid. Feinberg (1980) “Poets to the People,” is dedicated to
South African political prisoners and to the African National Congress (ANC).

7.2.3 A Social Perspective

Social relationships, beliefs, value systems and general activities are manifested
by the work of poets. Poets like David Diop criticised Western civilization
and its attendant colonialism. Okot p’Bitek (1973) a strong opponent of the
imitation of foreign culture, blames educational institutions for the kind of
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assimilation which he calls “penmanship.” Read the following excerpt from

“Song of Lawino,” by Okot p’Bitek.
Song of Lawino
Ocol is no longer in love with the old type
He is in love with beautiful one
The name of the beautiful one
Is Clementine

Brother, when you see Clementine!...

Her lips are red hot
Like glowing charcoal,
She resembles the wild cat
That has dipped its mouth in blood...
She dusts the ash - dirt all over her face
And when little sweat
Begins to appear on her body
She looks like a guinea –fowl!...
And she believes
That she is beautiful....
Source: Okot p’Bitek, (1981)

Comments

Lawino is a traditional woman and Clementine is a modern woman who is in

love with Ocol (Lawino’s husband). The poet is using words as weapons to
attack the modern culture that has developed among “black Europeans.” In
stanza one, “no longer” and “old type” make the reader feel pity for Lawino
who has lost her love. However, when she describes the woman who has
stolen her husband’s heart; we can see that she is not impressed by Clementine.
Somehow when we read the line “Brother when you see Clementine...!” we
expect to hear how beautiful she is. We are let down. We learn her lips are
“red hot.” Nothing is beautiful about a woman who is described in stanza two
“red hot glowing charcoal,” “wild cat,” and stanza three, “ash - dirt.” The
Kinsmen’s attention is drawn to the details of the woman who has lured Ocol.
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Lawino does not admire Clementine and wonders what has gone wrong with
Ocol. To date there is a lot of mental colonisation that still lingers on among
Africans. We still see people using skin lightening creams so that they look
“white.” Even in spoken English, some of the black people struggle to
pronounce it like the first language speakers of the English language, so as to
be categorized as “black elite.”

In short, the war poetry was/is not restricted to the political arena. It spreads
its presence to the cultural aspects of life. Fortunately culture means much
more than clothes and wigs, facial make - up, fashion and names. Moreover
there are some elements to be enjoyed from the white men e.g. the benefits
brought by their technology, Morrison and Ngara (1989) think that p’Bitek
should not confuse fashion with culture. This Module concedes that social
context in which change is inevitable, cannot be ignored, after all modernisation
is inherently a conflict between innovation and tradition.

7.3 Political Perspectives of Poets’ Role

African poet can be divided into historical period and the post - colonial
period. “In traditional African society, the arts, poetry, music and dance are
not usually carried out for their own sake,” Meu in Killam (1973:94). The
poet is seen to function as speaking for the voiceless, as a teacher (Achebe),
committed patriot and revolutionary (Kane), transmitter of values and ethics
(Soyinka). The poet is also considered to be the custodian of communal
experience(s); one who interrogates activities and interactions among different
groups of people. Most African poets are characterized by their patriotism
which saw them being imprisoned.
Poem 1
A Luta Continua
Your name informed by your blood stains
Was born before your body
To inform us:
A worker’s world is ascending
Over the stench and sunken graves
Of these racists rapists gold fanged exploiters.
Poets leave him alone you have praised him
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If you sing of workers you have praised him

If you sing of brotherhood you have praised him
If you sing of liberation you have praised him
If you sing of peace you have praised him
You have praised him without knowing his name
His name is Spear of the Nation. Mayibuye!
Source: Kgositsile. K, in Ngara(1987).

Poem 2.

“Home Sweet Home”

When will I see you again?
I miss you beautiful Zimbabwe
Your colorful mountains
And meandering rivers,

Now I am a soldier in hiding

Sheltered by your sister, Mozambique
I know one day I will come.
I fight my way back
For you, home
I vow to die.

All that i would wish is

To answer the universal hunger
The universal hunger
To prescribe at last this unique race free.

(Source: Nyamubaya 1986)

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Activity 7.1
1. What is the role and function of poem number 1?
? 2.
3.
What is the role and function of poem number 2?
Which of the two poems achieves its objectives more effectively than
the other? Why?

7.3.1 Protest within Borders

Poetry is characterised by sharp denunciations of the oppressor and revelation
of the distressful situations. The oppressor remains in power by force and the
oppressed hope to revenge in the future. The violence of the situation cultivates
a violent style which usually destroys genuine creativity. Zimbabwean poets
represented in Chipasula’s Anthology can be divided into two categories:
poets who wrote from within the boundaries of Zimbabwe and those who
wrote while they were in exile. The poets cover the period between 1970 and
1980, which was the peak - decade of the liberation war. Those who wrote
from within deliberately used ambiguities and elusive metaphors. On the other
hand the work of those artists, who were outside the country, was characterised
by the explicitness.

7.3.2 Protest by those in exile

South African poets like Brutus and Kgositsile are of the protest type. Their
poetry is marked by open denunciation of the oppressor and the exposure of
distressing condition in prison. They could write frankly because they felt safe
while they were in exile. Poems like “We demand power," show how the
oppressor kept power using brutality while the oppressed kept hoping for a
chance to revenge.

7.5 Struggles between Tradition and Modernisation

In Zimunya’s poetry the struggle is expressed in the form of urbanity versus
the rural home and its culture. Lawino’s argument in the song (7.3) shows that
p’Bitek does not believe that new values can triumph over old traditional
values. Poets like Zimunya, Marechera Zhuwarara, and Mahoso were
definitely not happy with conditions in their contemporary society.

Read these two lines from Marechera, Dambudzo (1984), and see how he
compares the rural set – up with the urban one.
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“The city man cometh to no pain

When rural grounds receive no rain.”

In the two lines above, Marechera clearly distinguishes the city (urban), from
the rural experiences. Zimumya’s poem entitled,” The City’s Beauty”, depicts
human beings in harmony with mountains and streams. He strongly attacks
the city and its life - style. Read the poem that follows and answer the questions.
The City’s Beauty
Like the beauty of a lover, the beauty of the city
Only lasts the lick of ice -cream
And the melting of chewing gum
Or the coolness of beer
Or the groan of a prostitute
The pleasure of the disco pounding numbness (sic)
And the tinkle of a coin
(Source: Zimunya, 1985)

Activity 7.2
1. What do the two lines by Marechera have in common with Zimunya’s
? 2.
poem?
Comment on the effect of the figurative language used in the poem by
Zimunya?
3. How far do you support the idea that urban life has short-lived pleasure
(s).

7.6 Liberation Poetry in Zimbabwe

The term “war poet,” came about due to the first world war (1914 - 18)
which produced a distinct body of poetry. The demands of the battle front
brought a lot of demands on the professional army and resulted in mass
conscription of ordinary civilians.

In order to discover the role that Zimbabwean Liberation poetry played in the
struggle in more specific terms we need to analyse it and let it speak for itself.
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For instance, in his prison poetry, Dennis Brutus reveals the inhumanity to
which the prisoners were subjected. The intensity of feelings can be traced.
Read the following extract, by Brutus.
The sounds begin again
the siren at night
the thunder at the door
the shriek of nerves in pain

Then the keening crescendo

of faces split in pain
the wordless, endless wail
only the unfree know

Importance as rain
the wraith exhale their woe
over the sirens, knuckles, boots
my sounds begin again.

Source: Dennis Brutus, in Jones, (1994)

Now let us read the following poem from Zimbabwe, written by a

Zimbabwean. I t was written by Nyamubaya (1986).

On The Road Again

Now that I have put my gun down

For almost obvious reasons

The enemy still is here invisible

My barrel has no definite target now

Let my hands work

My mouth sing

My pencil write
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Above the same

Things about the same

Things my bullet aimed at.

(Source: Nyamubaya, F).

Activity 7.3
1. Can you identify any symbols of harshness and brutality in the poems?
? 2.
3.
In what way(s) can you confirm that poetry is a weapon too?
What does this poem have in common with the poem from Dennis
Brutus?

7.7 Poetry in the Post Colonial Era

Musaemura Zimunya’s “Arrivants,”(1985) describes a disillusioned
homecoming for the fighters, refugees and students. They are not happy, when
they discover “democracy with strings attached,” the killings in Bulawayo
which indicated tribal animosities Dambudzo Marechera Oracle of the Poro
is a pain's taking social satire focusing on the starving “out - of work, “the
murder of tourists and other travellers by distinguished ex - fighters; the corrupt
activities of the government officials and other social evils. Writers like Mahoso,
(1989) expressed their disappointment with the conditions back home. The
problem was that having to bear miseries of neo – colonialism. Both Marechera
and Ngara had no faith in reconciliation after the liberation struggle. You might
want to look at this extract from Ngara. “What cause for Celebration?”
What Cause for Celebration?
What causes have we to celebrate
When the very watch dogs we hired to guard our homes
Now bite our thighs and frighten our children
In broad day light
But welcome the burglar who comes in the dark of night
And offers them bones to chew
(Source: Ngara, E. 1992)
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Activity 7.4
1. Assess and justify negritude as a cultural and literary movement,
? 2.
considering that it also is discriminatory towards other races.
Examine the overlap that exists in the various roles of poetry.
3. Describe the way in which the element of struggle cannot be eliminated
from society and show what the poets’ obligations are, in that respect.

7.8 Summary
In the unit we started off by highlighting the role of poets in furthering the
concerns of negritude. It went on to describe the part played by poetry in
Zimbabwean Liberation Struggle; socio – economic trends and the aftermath
of the Liberation Struggle. The role of poetry was seen to be part and parcel
of the entire fabric of human lives. This is why the unit viewed poetry from
several perspectives. We saw that it is not enough for poets to simply expose
what is evil without presenting suggestions for solving the problematic situations.
In short, all poets are speakers/speakers messages. They encode their messages
using various techniques to speak on behalf of the society and also to speak
to society. As readers, we are obliged to decode all the words and make sure
we get the wholesome meaning from our poets. Of course their work might
include a sense of humour but we are advised to try our best to get the sense
behind the humour too.

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References
Cesaire, A. (1969). Return To My Native Land. London; Penguin.
Fienberg (ed) (1980). Poets To The People: South African Freedom Poem.
London: Heinemann Education Book.
Jones, [Link] al. (1994). Critical Theory and African Literature Today.
London . James Currey Ltd.
Liyong, T. (1969). The Last Word. Nairobi. East African Publishing House.
Marechera, D. (1985). Mind blast. Harare, College Press.
Ngara, E. and Morrison (ed) Literature, Language and The Nation. Harare:
Boabab Books.
Ngugi, Wa Thiongo, (1981). Writes in Politics :Studies in Africa Literature.
Nairobi. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd.
Nyamubaya, F.T .V. (1986). On the Road Again. Harare, Zimbabwe
Publishing House.
Zimunya, M. (1985). Country Downs and City Lights. Longman: Harare.

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Unit Eight
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Writing Poetry

8.0 Introduction

T his unit is meant to show that your participation in poetry is not just
limited to reading and analysing it. There is potential in you to become a
writer too. Reasons for writing are described and practical tips are provided
on how to go about the art of writing. I am convinced that, having studied
how words are chosen and used to create certain effects, you too can give it
a try. Remember that the writer’s obligation is more exciting than that of the
reader. This is because for the reader, the starting point is the printed text,
while for the writer; the starting point is a blank page! There is room for
creativity and freedom for the writer. The reader on the other hand, has to be
glued to the text.....read it, understand it and interpret it, using textual evidence.
This is not to say one task is easier than the other, but merely to show you that
you too can do it. Having gone through the genre, we have not exhausted it
but this unit is included to increase your understanding of poetry.
Poetry DEPP 156

8.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 determine the purpose of written work
 create your own piece of writing
 use the phases that lead to good written work
 describe the symbiotic relationship between reading and writing

8.2 Why Write?

One of the main reasons for writing is to enhance the relationship that mankind
has with the world and creation at large. To make writing complete and
meaningful, the act of reading is needed. This is just like the necessity of
listeners to speakers. Writing is in fact viewed as a regulatory exercise. The
writer thinks and makes decisions before putting pen to paper. As suggested
in the introductory section of this unit, for the writer, the future is a blank page
and yet for the reader, the future is found in the interpretation of all the written
work. So writers do not write for themselves (just like people do not speak
to themselves). You are thus, encouraged to fully grasp the dialectical correlation
between reading and writing. The act of writing implies that of reading-
combining the effort of the author with that of the reader. The reader’s purpose
is to bring to life, all the work of the writer’s mind. Therefore, the author
writes in order to address himself/herself to the literary appreciation of readers.
The writer, like other artists, writes because he/she aims at providing aesthetic
joy to the readers. Throughout the rest of the units, you saw and even critically
examined the work of different authors. You were able to do so because the
task of the reader (like you and I) begins where the author stops.

8.3 How to Write

William (1963) gives advice on how to get started. He says “... it is absolutely
essential to the writing of anything worthwhile that the mind be fluid and release
itself to the task.” He says for a start all the rules and instructions (concerning
what ought to be written) should be totally ignored. Once the writing is on the
paper or screen (for the technologically advanced), it requires attention.
Schools, colleges and universities deal development of writing skills. The
problem is that everybody overlooks the fact that this written work originates
from the person(s) deep/hidden strata. The writer has to be clearly distinguished
from the critic.
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James Baldwin in Houston (1973) says the importance of a writer is that he/
she is here to describe things which other people are too busy to describe.
Admittedly it is a function, which remains special even if it is taken for granted.
Words are the only tools that a writer works with.

8.4 Creative Writing

Creative writing can take many forms. It can be a short story, a novel or just
an essay. Poems can also be used for the development of creative writing
skills. It is argued that poetry was originally some kind of singing. Among the
American – Indians, poems were always sung or chanted. The ancient Greeks
wrote all their poems, from the short love lyrics to the epics and bloody battles
described by Homer in “The I Laid.” The written form was the basis for the
music which they sung. Like the narrative, poetry is best learned by studying
what other writers have done.

We include here a poem of my own (unpublished), because the infected and

affected people are all very close to me. Read the Poem.
Fatal Virus
But why have you killed so many brothers
From the face of this earth you have erased fathers and mothers
Nobody has managed to convince me about where you came from
Nobody has any idea, where your fatal agenda came from

H.I.V, yes, that is your name

You do not have the slightest of shame
You have cut across all the strata of society
H.I.V, you continue to erode all units of society

You have squashed virtually all age groups

You have swallowed many beautiful young ladies

You continue to hi - jack even the innocent babies

You invincible one who hungers for all age – groups!

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Like a thief, you enter your victims’ bodies

You slowly tear apart the functions of their bodies

Honestly, you have made a name for yourself

No other virus is talked about in more fear than yourself

I salute you, evil one and I am scared of you

You are insatiable and thousands of people are scared of you

Without you, all individuals and nationals could be very well

Ok, just whisper to me when you will bid us farewell.

(By Angela Maposa: 2013 Unpublished)

Comment

You might want to take note of the fact that the poet’s approach is directly
addressing the virus. The poem is about poet’s relationship with the fatal virus
what it means to her and how she feels about it. This is deliberate because
poetry is also a way of seeing. Can you see how/where the virus is personified?
What emotion is dominant in this poet’s language? Provide textual evidence.
Maybe you can use the “SIFT,” acronym to outline the four meanings of the
poem.

Activity 8.1
1. Write about any object “from the inside,”(pretend you are that object
? and speak with its voice). Do not worry about the form. It need not
rhyme.
2. Write about any object “from the outside.” Describe it respond to it in
any way that you that you may think of.
3. Write a song by any popular musician. Check for the characteristics of
music which this module has so far discussed.

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Unit 8 Writing Poetry

8.5 Practical Guides for Writers

Here are some tips that are meant to equip you with the skill you need in
order to participate, with success in writing for different purposes. More
attention is given to academic writing.

8.5.1 Write a lot

Writing is an activity which gets better with practice. By the way, you cannot
learn how to swim unless and until you get into the swimming pool, stream or
some other water body. Writing is a physical activity but it is also a mental
activity because there must be something to write about. Writing is considered
to be a process in the sense that the first draft usually bears a lot of errors and
must be proof read. Once mistakes are identified; the writer is responsible for
correcting the mistakes. We are all interested in note-making techniques. Notes
are made so that they serve as reminders for immediate use before writing an
essay; for use in revision for examinations. Likewise, you cannot be good at
writing unless and until you start, get into it and try it out.

8.5.2 Read a lot

Reading is looking at and understanding meaning of printed works. We are
concerned with intensive reading of poetry, which is more thorough than
extensive reading. Extensive reading covers as much ground as possible but it
has no room for depth. In intensive reading, we begin by quickly going through
the poem; questioning ourselves about the ideas and language before we read
more carefully and more critically, this time. The second reading will facilitate
recall of the ideas presented and even allow us to recite some lines from the
poetry we read.

„ There is a lot to be learnt from the literature that already exists.

„ Read aloud. When you have gone through a piece of written work,
listen to it by reading it aloud.
„ Use concrete and specific language.
„ Look for strong verbs.
„ Be willing to revise and re-write. Writing is a process in which the
first draft is revised and improved. It is quite normal to end up with
three or four drafts of a document. Revision has no limit(s). It can continue
and end only when the writer is satisfied.

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„ Be willing to explore. Do not be afraid to try something new. The greatest

danger is not to take the risk.
„ Be honest, Plagiarism is not acceptable. Your work has to be original.
However, if you have to refer to another author, then you should
acknowledge that.

Activity 8.2
1. Use the guide lines given above to write a poem, on a subject of your
? 2.
choice.
After writing check the figurative language and other techniques that
make your poem effective.
3. Give to a colleague who will check if the characteristics that this module
has discussed are present. Is there any room for improvement?
4. Make the final improvements.

8.6 Summary
In the unit we have gone through the activity of writing and also indicated how
we can develop both our reading and writing skills. We provided several
reasons for writing and emphasis was placed on academic writing for the
simple reason that all scholars have to prove their understanding and present
critical positions in writing. Teachers are advised to integrate poetry as fully as
possible into the syllabus. Performance components should be given plenty of
time for in - class practice. The instructional leader has to believe in the power
of poetry. Most learners already do (even if this poetry is in their first language)
and all they need is a little prompting from the teacher. In this unit we also
described some practical guidelines for effective writing. We hope that you
will use poetry to develop all your language skills, that is, writing, reading,
speaking and listening.

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References
Baldwin, J. (1979). If Black English isn’t a Language, then tell me what it
is? New York Times Company.
Comley, R. N. et al (1994). Fields of Writing. New York: St. Martins Press.
McGregor, G.P and Bright, J. A .(1994). Teaching English as a Second
Language. Harlow, Essex: Longman Group Ltd.
Stephen, M. (1984). An Introductory Guide to English Literature.
Longman: Singapore Publishers.

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