System Design
Heat Gain From Occupants of
Conditioned Spaces
HeatGain(BTU/Hr)
Typical Application
Total Sensible Latent
Theater (seated) 350 245 105
Offices, Hotels, Apartments 400 245 155
Retail and Department Stores 450 250 200
Banks & Drug Stores 500 250 250
Restaurant 550 275 275
Factory - light (bench work) 750 275 475
Factory - heavy work 1450 580 870
Gym (participants) 1800 710 1090
Dance Hall 850 305 545
Bowling Alley (participants)* 1450 580 870
Notes:
Tabulated values are based on 75°F room dry-bulb temperature.
Total heat gain is based on normal percentage of men, women and
children for the application listed.
*Figure one person actually bowling per alley and all others as sitting
(400 BTU/Hr) or standing (550 BTU/Hr).
Adapted from Chapter 18.4 ASHRAE “Fundamentals” Handbook, 2013
An HVAC Engineer’s
Guide to Better System
Design: Heat Loss, Sound,
Filtration & More
32
System Design
Rate of Heat Gain from
Appliances and Equipment
Commercial Hooded Cooking Appliances in
Air-Conditioned Area
Sensible BTU/Hr
Item
Electric Gas
Broiler, underfired 3 ft 10,800 9,000
Fryer: open deep fat, 1 vat 1,000 1,100
Fryer: pressure 500 800
Griddle double sided 3 ft (clamshell down)* 1,400 1,800
Griddle double sided 3 ft (clamshell up)* 3,600 4,900
Griddle flat 3 ft 4,500 3,700
Induction cooktop* 2,700 -
Induction wok* 0 -
Range wok* 5,200 5,200
Range top: top off , oven on* 1,000 2,000
Range top: 3 elements on, oven off 6,300 7,100
Range: 6 elements on, oven off 13,900 11,500
Range: 6 elements on, oven on 14,500 13,600
Oven: combination: combination mode* 800 400
Oven: combination: convection mode 1,400 1,000
Oven: convection full size 1,500 1,000
Oven: conveyor (pizza) - 7,800
Rotisserie* 4,500 -
Pasta cooker* 0 0
Rice cooker* - 300
Salamander* 7,000 5,300
Steam kettle large (60 gal) simmer lid down* 100 0
Steam kettle small (40 gal) simmer lid down* 300 -
Steam kettle small (10 gal) simmer lid down * - 300
Tilting skillet/braising pan 0 400
* Swiercyna, R, P.A. Sobiski, and D.R. Fisher. 2009. Revised heat
gain rates from typical commercial cooking appliances from RP-1362.
ASHRAE Transactions 115(2).
Adapted from ASHRAE “Fundamentals” Handbook, 2013
33
System Design
Commercial Unhooded Electric Cooking
Appliances in Air-Conditioned Area
Sensible BTU/Hr
Item
Electric Convective
Coffee brewing urn 200 300
Espresso machine 400 800
Hotdog roller 900 1,500
Hotplate: single burner, high speed 900 2,100
Microwave oven: commercial (heavy duty) 0 0
Oven: countertop conveyorized bake/ 2,200 10,400
finishing
Panini 1,200 2,000
Popcorn popper 100 100
Refrigerator, reach-in 300 900
Refrigerated prep table 600 300
Steamer (bun) 600 100
Toaster: 4 slice, pop up (large) cooking 200 1,400
Toaster: contact (vertical) 2,700 2,600
Toaster: conveyor (large) 3,000 7,300
Toaster: conveyor (small) 800 400
Waffle iron 0 400
Dishwasher (conveyor type, chemical 0 4,450
sanitizing)
Dishwasher (conveyor type, hot-water 0 4,750
sanitizing) standby
Dishwasher (door type, chemical sanitizing) 0 1,980
washing
Dishwasher (door type, hot-water sanitizing) 0 1,980
washing
Dishwasher (under-counter type, chemical 0 2,280
sanitizing) standby
Dishwasher (under-counter type, hot-water 800 1,040
sanitizing) standby
Booster heater 500 0
Adapted from ASHRAE “Fundamentals” Handbook, 2013
34
System Design
Miscellaneous Appliances
Manufacturer’s Recommended Rate of
Rating Heat Gain, BTU/Hr
Type
Item
Watts BTU/ *Sensible Latent Total
Hr
Hair dryer 1,580 5,400 2,300 400 2,700
Electrical
Hair dryer 705 2,400 1,870 330 2,200
Neon sign, - - 30 - 30
per linear ft of tube - - 60 - 60
Sterilizer, instrument 1,100 3,750 650 1,200 1,850
Lab burners Bunsen - 3,000 1,680 420 2,100
Gas-Burning
Fishtail - 5,000 2,800 700 3,500
Meeker - 6,000 3,360 840 4,200
Gas Light, per burner - 2,000 1,800 200 2,000
Cigar lighter - 2,500 900 100 1,000
* Use sensible heat gain for ventilation calculation
Adapted from ASHRAE “Fundamentals” Handbook, 2013
Office Equipment
Description Load
Type of Use ft² / Factor
Density Workstation Accessories W/ft²
Light 167 0.25
100% laptop
Medium 125 0.33
50% laptop Light 167 1 printer per 10, 0.40
50% desktop Medium 125 speakers, misc. 0.50
Light 167 0.60
0.80
Medium 125 2 monitors, 1 printer
per 10, speakers, 1.00
misc.
100% desktop 2 monitors, 1 printer
per 8, speakers, 1.50
misc.
Heavy 85
2 monitors, 1 printer
per 8, speakers, 2.00
misc. (no diversity)
Adapted from ASHRAE “Fundamentals” Handbook, 2013
35
System Design
Heat Gain From Electric Motors
Location Relative to Airstream
Motor In Motor Out Motor Out
Equipment Equipment Equipment
In In Out
Full Load
HP Phase Efficiency BTU/Hr BTU/Hr BTU/Hr
%
0.25 1 68.5 929 636 293
0.33 1 72.4 1,160 840 320
0.5 1 76.2 1,670 1,273 397
0.75 1 81.8 2,333 1,909 425
1 3 85.5 2,977 2,545 432
1.5 3 86.5 4,413 3,818 596
2 3 86.5 5,884 5,090 794
3 3 89.5 8,531 7,635 896
5 3 89.5 14,218 12,725 1,493
7.5 3 91.0 20,975 19,088 1,888
10 3 91.7 27,754 25,450 2,304
15 3 93.0 41,048 38,175 2,873
20 3 93.0 54,731 50,900 3,831
25 3 93.6 67,975 63,625 4,350
30 3 94.1 81,137 76,350 4,787
40 3 94.1 108,183 101,800 6,383
50 3 94.5 134,656 127,250 7,406
60 3 95.0 160,737 152,700 8,037
75 3 95.0 200,921 190,875 10,046
100 3 95.4 266,771 254,500 12,271
125 3 95.4 333,464 318,125 15,339
150 3 95.8 398,486 381,750 16,736
200 3 95.8 531,315 509,000 22,315
250 3 95.8 664,144 636,250 27,894
Calculated using information from 2009 ASHRAE Fundamentals,
Chapter 18 and DOE minimum motor efficiencies for nominal
1800 RPM, ODP, General Purpose Motors
36
System Design
Air Filtration
ANSI/ASHRAE 52.2 is now the accepted standard used
for evaluating filter performance. ASHRAE Standard 52.1 has
been discontinued.
Filter performance is now reported as a Minimum Efficiency
Reporting Value (MERV) at a specific test velocity. While this
is a completely new test with no direct comparison to the
Average Dust Spot Efficiency parameters of earlier Standards,
two criteria of these standards have been adopted by 52.2;
“Arrestance” for determining MERV 1-4 and “Dust Holding
Capacity." Dust Holding Capacity is reported simply as the
weight of synthetic loading dust captured by the filter for the
duration of this test and should not be used to calculate the
expected life of the device in use. (ASHRAE 52.1 information
is shown for comparison purposes only)
52.2 tests are run intermittently on representative samples
of filters from normal manufacturing runs, not on each
individual filter elements (See HEPA filters, below).
The standard quantifies the ability of a filter to remove
particulate, on average, in specific size ranges, from the
airstream. This is referred to as Particulate Size Efficiency.
Filters are rated for particle sizes ranging from 0.3 to 10
micrometers in three ranges; E1 (0.3 – 1 micrometer), E2 (1 –
3 micrometers) and E3 (3-10 micrometers).
See Filter Application Guidelines chart for more information.
37
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Fog Mists Rain
Yeast-Cells
Tobacco Smoke
Diameter of
Molds
Oil Smoke Human Hair
Gas Molecules Bacteria
Pollen
Contaminants
Virus Lung-Damaging-Particles Plant Spores
Unsettling-Atmospheric-Impurities Settling-Atmos.-Impur. Heavy Indust. Dust
Fumes Dusts
Fly-Ash
Electronic-Microscope Microscope Visible By Human Eye
X-rays Ultra-Violet Visible Infra-Red
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
0.3
Micron
This represents a 10 This represents a 0.3 micron
micron diameter particle, diameter particle. This is the
Relative Size Chart of Common Air
the smallest size visible most respirable, lung damaging
with the human eye. particle size.
This Dimension Represents the Diameter of a Human Hair, 100 Microns
1 Micron = 1 micrometer = 1 millionth of a meter
38
System Design
System Design
Filter Application Guidelines
Particle Typical Controlled Typical Typical Air Filter/
Size Contaminant Application Cleaner Type
< 0.3 Virus Electronics HEPA / ULPA Filters
μm (unattached) manufacturing
Carbon dust Pharmaceutical
Tobacco smoke manufacturing
All combustion Carcinogenic
materials
0.3-1 Bacteria Superior Bag filters: Non
μm Droplet nuclei commercial supported (flexible)
(sneeze) buildings microfine fiberglass or
Hospital synthetic media, 12 to
Cooking oil 36 inches deep.
inpatient care
Most smoke Box filters: Rigid
General
Insecticide dust surgery style cartridge, 6 to
Most face 12 inches deep.
powder
Most paint
1-3 μm Legionella Superior Pleated filters:
Humidifier dust residential Extended surface with
Better cotton or polyester
Lead dust media or both, 1 to 6
commercial
Auto emission buildings inches thick.
particles Box filters: Rigid
Hospital
Nebulizer drops laboratories style cartridge, 6 to
12 inches deep.
3-10 Mold spores Better Pleated filters:
μm Dust mite feces residential Extended surface with
Commercial cotton or polyester
Cat and dog media or both, 1 to 6
dander buildings
inches thick
Hair spray Industrial
workspaces Cartridge filters:
Fabric protector Viscous cube or
Dusting aids pocket filters
Throwaway: Synthetic
media panel filters
> 10 Pollen Minimum Throwaway:
μm Dust mites filtration Fiberglass or
Residential synthetic media
Cockroach feces panel, 1 inch thick
window air
Sanding dust conditioners Washable: Aluminum
Spray paint dust mesh, foam rubber
Textile fibers panel
Carpet fibers Electrostatic: Self-
charging (passive)
woven polycarbonate
panel
39
System Design
Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value (MERV)
Parameters
ASHRAE
ASHRAE Standard 52.2 Standard 52.1
Particle Size Removal Efficiency, % Dust - Spot
MERV Efficiency
0.3 to 1 μm 1 to 3 μm 3 to 10 μm
16 > 95 > 95 > 95 -
15 85 - 95 > 90 > 90 > 95
14 75 - 85 > 90 > 90 90 - 95
13 < 75 > 90 > 90 80 - 90
12 - > 80 > 90 70 - 75
11 - 65 - 80 > 85 60 - 65
10 - 50 - 65 > 85 50 - 55
9 - < 50 > 85 40 - 45
8 - - > 70 30 - 35
7 - - 50 - 70 25 - 30
6 - - 35 - 50 < 20
5 - - 20 - 35 < 20
1-4 - - < 20 < 20
Notes:
1. This table is adapted from ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 52.2-2007.15
2. HEPA filters (formerly delineated as MERV 17-20 filters) are
not part of this Standard. HEPAs are each individually tested
for penetration to absolute – not average – values by strictly
controlled IEST test methods.
3. For residential applications, the ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.2-
2007.16 requires a filter with a designated minimum efficiency of
MERV 6 or better. Current LEED requirements specify conditions
for MERV 8 and MERV 13 filters.
40
System Design
Sound
• Sound Power (W): the amount of power a source
converts to sound in watts.
• Sound Power Level (LW): a logarithmic comparison of
sound power output by a source to a reference sound
source, W0 (10-12 watt).
LW = 10 log10 (W/W0 ) dB
• Sound Pressure (P): pressure associated with sound
output from a source. Sound pressure is what the human
ear reacts to.
• Sound Pressure Level (Lp): a logarithmic comparison of
sound pressure output by a source to a reference sound
source, P0 (2 × 10-5 Pa).
Lp = 20 log10 (P/P0 ) dB
• Noise Criteria (NC): a single numerical index commonly
used to define design goals for the maximum allowable noise
in a given space. NC levels consist of a family of curves
that define the maximum allowable octave-band sound
pressure level corresponding to a chosen NC design goal.
Even though sound power level and sound pressure level
are both expressed in dB, there is no outright conversion
between the two. A constant sound power output will result
in significantly different sound pressures and sound pressure
levels when the source is placed in different environments.
Rules of Thumb
• When specifying sound criteria for HVAC equipment, refer
to sound power level, not sound pressure level.
• When comparing sound power levels, remember the
lowest and highest octave bands are only accurate to
about +/- 4 dB.
• Lower frequencies are the most difficult to attenuate.
• When trying to calculate the additive effect of two sound
sources, use the approximation (logarithms cannot be
added directly) on the following chart.
41
System Design
Noise Criteria (NC)
Graph sound pressure level for each octave band on NC
curve. Highest curve intercepted is NC level of sound source.
NC Curves
90
80
Octave Band Sound Pressure Level (dB)
70
70
60 65
Noise Criteria (NC)
60
50 55
50
45
40
40
30 35
30
Approximate
20 threshold of 25
hearing for
20
continuous
noise 15
10
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Octave Band Mid-Frequency (Hz)
42
System Design
Adding Sound Pressure Levels
Difference between sound dB to add to highest sound
pressure levels pressure level
0 3.0
1 2.5
2 2.1
3 1.8
4 1.5
5 1.2
6 1.0
7 0.8
8 0.6
9 0.5
10+ 0
2 × sound pressure (single source) = +3 dB (sound pressure level)
2 × distance from sound source = -6 dB (sound pressure level)
+10 dB (sound pressure level)= 2 × original loudness perception
Sound Power and Sound Power Level
Sound
Power
Sound Power (Watts) Source
Level
dB
Jet engine with
100,000 170 afterburner
10,000 160 Jet aircraft at takeoff
1,000 150 Turboprop at takeoff
100 140 Prop aircraft at takeoff
10 130 Loud rock band
1 120 Small aircraft engine
0.1 110 Blaring radio
0.01 100 Car at highway speed
0.001 90 Voice - shouting
0.0001 80 Garbage disposal unit
0.00001 70 Voice - conversational
Electronic equipment
0.000001 60 cooling fan
0.0000001 50 Office air diffuser
0.00000001 40 Small electric clock
0.000000001 30 Voice - very soft whisper
43
System Design
Sound Pressure and Sound Pressure Level
Sound
Sound Pressure
Pressure Typical Environment
Level
(Pascals) dB
200.0 140 100 ft. from military aircraft at take-off
Pneumatic chipping and riveting
63.0 130 (operator’s position)
20.0 120 Passenger Jet takeoff at 100 ft.
6.3 110 Automatic punch press (operator’s position)
2.0 100 Automatic lathe shop
0.63 90 Construction site - pneumatic drilling
0.2 80 Computer printout room
0.063 70 Loud radio (in average domestic room)
0.02 60 Restaurant
0.0063 50 Conversational speech at 3 ft.
0.002 40 Whispered conversation at 6 ft.
0.00063 30 Quiet bedroom at night
0.0002 20 Background in TV recording studios
0.00002 0 Normal threshold of hearing
Room Sones: dBA Correlation
150
100
90
80
70
Loudness (Sones)
60
50
40
30
20
10
9
50 60 70 80 90 100
Sound Level (dBA)
From ASHRAE "Fundamentals" Handbook, 2013
44
System Design
Design Criteria for Room Loudness (Sones)
Values shown are room loudness in sones and are not fan sone
ratings. For additional detail see AMCA publication 302-73 (R2008)
Application of Sone Rating.
Auditoriums Churches and Schools
Concert and Sanctuaries 1.7 to 5
1 to 3
opera halls Schools & 2.5 to 8
Stage theaters 1.5 to 5 classrooms
Movie theaters 2 to 6 Recreation halls 4 to 12
Semi-outdoor Kitchens 6 to 18
2 to 6
amphitheaters Libraries 2 to 6
Lecture halls 2 to 6 Laboratories 4 to 12
Multi-purpose 1.5 to 5 Corridors and 5 to 15
Courtrooms 3 to 9 halls
Auditorium 4 to 2 Indoor Sports Activities
lobbies
TV audience Gymnasiums 4 to 12
2 to 6 Coliseums 3 to 9
studios
Swimming
Manufacturing Areas 7 to 21
pools
Heavy Bowling alleys 4 to 12
25 to 60
machinery Gambling
Foundries 20 to 60 4 to 12
casinos
Light machinery 12 to 36
Assembly lines 12 to 36 Offices
Machine shops 15 to 50 Executive 2 to 6
Plating shops 20 to 50 Supervisor 3 to 9
Punch press General open
50 to 60 4 to 12
shops offices
Tool Tabulation/
7 to 21 6 to 18
maintenance computation
Foreman’s Drafting 4 to 12
5 to 15
office Professional offices 3 to 9
General storage 10 to 30 Conference rooms 1.7 to 5
Board of Directors 1 to 3
Halls and corridors 5 to 15
Continued on next page
45
System Design
Hospitals and Clinics Transportation (rail, bus & plane)
Private rooms 1.7 to 5 Waiting rooms 5 to 15
Wards 2.5 to 8 Ticket sales office 4 to 12
Laboratories 4.0 to 12 Control rooms & 6 to 12
Operating rooms 2.5 to 8 towers
Lobbies & waiting 4.0 to 12 Lounges 5 to 15
rooms Retail shops 6 to 18
Halls and 4.0 to 12 Retail Stores
corridors
Clothing stores 4 to 12
Hotels Supermarkets 7 to 21
Lobbies 4 to 12 Department stores
Banquet rooms 8 to 24 6 to 18
(main floor)
Ball rooms 3 to 9 Department stores
4 to 12
Individual rooms/ (upper floor)
2 to 6
suites Small retail stores 6 to 18
Kitchens and 7 to 21
laundries Residences
Halls and Two & three family
4 to 12 3 to 9
corridors units
Garages 6 to 18 Apartment houses 3 to 9
Private homes
Restaurants 3 to 9
(urban)
Restaurants 4 to 12
Private homes
Cafeterias 6 to 8 1.3 to 4
(rural & suburban)
Cocktail lounges 5 to 15
Social clubs 3 to 9 Public Buildings
Night clubs 4 to 12 Museums 3 to 9
Banquet room 8 to 24 Planetariums 2 to 6
Post offices 4 to 12
Miscellaneous Courthouses 4 to 12
Reception rooms 3 to 9 Public libraries 2 to 6
Washrooms and Banks (general) 4 to 12
5 to 15
toilets
Lobbies and
Studios for sound 4 to 12
1 to 3 corridors
reproduction
Other studios 4 to 12
46
System Design
Seismic & Wind Forces
Seismic Forces
Designers are responsible for ensuring that equipment they
specify does not become a hazard under the effects of seismic
activity. Specific requirements are detailed in local codes and
may include such concerns as proper fastening and restraint,
mounting and isolation. The accompanying map indicates
areas which have the highest probability of seismic activity in
the continental United States.
Seismic Zones
70°
Two-percent probability of exceedance in 50 years map of peak ground acceleration
80°
1,000 MILES
90°
1,000 KILOMETERS
500
100°
500
Areas where suspected nontectonic
earthquakes have been deleted
110°
0
120°
a fraction of standard gravity (g)
Peak acceleration, expressed as
EXPLANATION
0.14
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.8
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
45°
40°
35°
30°
25°
Seismic Action Zones defined by USGS 2008
47
System Design
Wind Forces
High winds can apply significant forces to equipment
mounted on building exteriors. In some cases, where
buildings or systems provide critical services, the ventilation
equipment may be required to operate continuously under
such conditions. Local codes detail requirements which
may include equipment duty/suitability, tie downs, guy wires
or anchoring. The accompanying Wind Zone map indicates
maximum wind speeds for the United States.
Wind Zones
48