Mass Relationships in Chemical

Reactions
Atomic Mass

Micro World atoms & molecules → Macro World grams

Atomic mass is the mass of an atom in atomic mass units (amu)

By definition:
1 atom 12C “weights” 12 amu

On this scale
1H = 1.008 amu
16O = 16.00 amu
Atomic Mass

The average atomic mass is the weighted average of all the naturally
occurring isotopes（同位素） of the element.
Example
Copper（銅）, a metal known since ancient
times, is used in electrical cables（電纜）
and pennies（硬幣）, among other things.

The atomic masses of its two stable

isotopes, 2963 Cu ( 69.09 percent ) and 2965 Cu ( 30.91 percent )
are 62.93 amu and 64.9278 amu, respectively.

Calculate the average atomic mass of copper.

The relative abundances are given in
parentheses (圓括號).
Example

Strategy
Each isotope contributes to the average atomic mass
based on its relative abundance.

Multiplying the mass of an isotope by its fractional

abundance (not percent) will give the contribution to the
average atomic mass of that particular isotope.
Solution
First the percent’s are converted to fractions:

69.09 percent to 69.09 100 or 0.6909

30.91 percent to 30.91 100 or 0.3091

We find the contribution to the average atomic mass for each isotope,
then add the contributions together to obtain the average atomic mass.

(0.6909) (62.93 amu ) + (0.3091) (64.9278 amu) = 63.55 "amu"

Check
The average atomic mass should be between the two isotopic masses;
therefore, the answer is reasonable.
63 65
Note that because there are more 29 Cu than 29 Cu

isotopes, the average atomic mass is closer to 62.93 amu than to 64.9278 amu.
Atomic Mass on the Periodic Table（元素週期表）

In each element's entry box, the

atomic number is at the top of
each box, and the symbol is in
the center. The atomic mass is at
the bottom of each box.
Some periodic tables may
provide more information, but all
periodic tables should include
the atomic number, element
symbol, and atomic mass.
The Mole（摩爾）

The Mole (mol): A unit to count numbers of particles

Dozen = 12 Pair = 2
The mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that contains as many
elementary entities as there are atoms in exactly 12.00 grams of 12C

1 mol = N A = 6.0221415  1023

Avogadro’s number (NA)
Molar Mass（摩爾質量）
Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole of:
eggs in grams Aro
C
mom

shoes in grams
marbles in grams
atoms in grams
1mole 12 C atoms = 6.022  1023 atoms = 12.00 g
112 C atom = 12.00 amu

Relationship between g and amu?

1 mole lithium（鋰） atoms = 6.941 g of Li
For any element
X atomic mass(amu) = X molar mass(gram)
Examples of One Mole

For example, one mole of carbon has a mass of 12.01 g. So, 12.01 g of carbon is one mole of
carbon. One mole of sulfur(硫) has a mass of 32.06 g, so 32.06 g of sulfur is one mole of sulfur.
Converting Between Mass and Atoms

To convert from mass (in g) to number of atoms, first convert from mass to moles using
the molar mass (in g/mol). Then, convert from moles to the number of atoms using
Avogadro's number.
To convert from the number of atoms to mass (in g), first convert from atoms to moles
using Avogadro's number. Then, convert from moles to mass using the molar mass (in
g/mol).

M = molar mass in g mol

NA = Avogadro’s number
Example

Helium (氦，He) is a valuable gas used

in industry, low-temperature research,
deep-sea diving tanks, and balloons.

How many moles of He atoms are in

6.46 g of He?

A scientific research helium

balloon.
Solution
The conversion factor needed to convert between grams
and moles is the molar mass. In the periodic table (see
inside front cover) we see that the molar mass of He is
4.003 g. This can be expressed as

1 mol He = 4.003 g He

From this equality, we can write two conversion factors

1 mol He 4.003 g He
and
4.003 g He 1 mol He

The conversion factor on the left is the correct one.

The conversion factor on the left is the correct one.
Grams will cancel, leaving the unit mol for the answer, that is,
1 mol He
6.46 g He  = 1.61 mol He
4.003 g He

Thus, there are 1.61 moles of He atoms in 6.46 g of He.

Check
Because the given mass (6.46 g) is larger than the molar
mass of He, we expect to have more than 1 mole of He.
Example

Zinc (鋅, Zn) is a silvery metal that is

used in making brass (黃銅器, with
copper) and in plating iron to prevent
corrosion（腐蝕）.

How many grams of Zn are in 0.356

mole of Zn?

Zinc
Solution
The conversion factor needed to convert between moles and grams is
the molar mass. In the periodic table we see the molar mass of Zn is
65.39 g. This can be expressed as

1 mol Zn = 65.39 g Zn

From this equality, we can write two conversion factors

1 mol Zn 65.39 g Zn
and
65.39 g Zn 1 mol Zn

The conversion factor on the right is the correct one.

Moles will cancel, leaving unit of grams for the answer. The number of
grams of Zn is

65.39 g Zn
0.356 mol Zn  = 23.3 g Zn
1 mol Zn

Thus, there are 23.3 g of Zn in 0.356 mole of Zn.

Check
Does a mass of 23.3 g for 0.356 mole of Zn seem reasonable? What is
the mass of 1 mole of Zn?
Example

The C60 molecule is called buckminsterfullerene because its shape resembles the
geodesic domes designed by the visionary architect R. Buckminster Fuller.

What is the mass (in grams) of one C60 molecule?

 lmol mol
Solution
03

Because one C60 molecule contains 60 C atoms, and 1 6 . 022× ( 6

mole of C contains 6.022 1023 C atoms and has a mass of

12.011 g, we can calculate the mass of one C60 molecule as
follows:

60 C atoms 1 mol C
1 C 60 molecule  
1 C 60 molecule 6.022  1023 C atoms
巧
12.01g C 12 011
 = 1.197  10−21 g 6 022
.
× 10 atoms : .

g
1 mol C
m
60 atons
:

以凹
鼠0 x
12
011
.
一一
Molecular Mass（分子質量）
Molecular mass (or molecular weight) is the sum of the atomic masses
(in amu) in a molecule.

1S 32.07 amu
2O +2  16.00 amu
SO2 64.07 amu

SO2

For any molecule

molecular mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)
1 molecule SO2 = 64.07 amu
1 mole SO2 = 64.07 g SO2
Example

Calculate the molecular masses (in amu) of the

following compounds:

(a ) sulfur dioxide ( SO 2 ) , a gas that is responsible

for acid rain
(b ) caffeine (C8 H10 N 4O 2 ), a stimulant present
SO 2
in tea, coffee, and cola beverages
Strategy
How do atomic masses of different elements combine to give the molecular mass of
a compound?

Solution
To calculate molecular mass, we need to sum all the atomic masses in the molecule.
For each element, we multiply the atomic mass of the element by the number of
atoms of that element in the molecule. We find atomic masses in the periodic table.

a) There are two O atoms and one S atom in SO2, so that

molecular mass of SO 2 = 32.07 amu + 2 (16.00 amu)

= 64.07 amu
b) There are eight C atoms, ten H atoms, four N atoms, and two O
atoms in caffeine, so the molecular mass of C8H10N4O2 is given by

8(12.01 amu) + 10(1.008 amu) + 4(14.01 amu) + 2(16.00 amu) = 194.20

amu
 Example

Methane (甲烷, CH4) is the principal component of natural

gas.
12 + 4

How many moles of CH4 are present in 6.07 g of CH4?

CH 4

6 .0
(g ) 6
mass
0
379 mol
=
.

mol Mr
一
Solution
The conversion factor needed to convert between grams and moles is the molar mass. First
we need to calculate the molar mass of CH4, following the procedure before:

molar mass of CH 4 = 12.01g + 4 (1.008 g ) 008

= 16.04 g
Mr of H
→ 1 .

Because
mole
I of CH 4 = 6 0 r2 x
1023 nolecole
1 mol CH 4 = 16.04 g CH 4
.

the conversion factor we need should have grams in the denominator so

that the unit g will cancel, leaving the unit mol in the numerator:
1 mol CH 4
16.04 g CH 4
We now write,
1 mol CH 4
6.07 g CH 4  = 0.378 mol CH 4
16.04 g CH 4

Thus, there is 0.378 mole of CH4 in 6.07 g of CH4.

Check
Should 6.07 of CH4 equal less than 1 mole of CH4?
What is the mass of 1 mole of CH4?
 Example

能器品品 g
How many hydrogen atoms are present in 25.6 g of urea [尿
素, (NH2)2CO], which is used as a fertilizer(肥料), in animal
feed, and in the manufacture of polymers（聚合物）?
The molar mass of urea is 60.06 g. 了 4 mol oflt
~

mol of NN λ Imol ofua

2
x 10
6022
4 mol

1 mol
of H

of
cd
然 b
x
urea
60 .
一
Solution
To calculate the number of H atoms, we first must convert grams of urea to moles of urea
using the molar mass of urea.

The molecular formula of urea shows there are four moles of H atoms in one mole of urea
molecule, so the mole ratio is 4:1.

Finally, knowing the number of moles of H atoms, we can calculate the number of H atoms
using Avogadro’s number. We need two conversion factors: molar mass and Avogadro’s
number.
 We can combine these conversions
grams of urea → moles of urea → moles of H → atoms of H

into one step :

1 mol ( NH 2 )2 CO 4 mol H 6.022 1023 H atoms
= 25.6 g ( NH 2 )2 CO   
60.06 g ( NH 2 )2 CO 1 mol ( NH 2 )2 CO 1 mol H
1 mol ( NH 2 ) 2 CO 4 mol H 6.022 1023 H atoms
= 25.6 g ( NH 2 ) 2 CO   
60.06 g ( NH 2 ) 2 CO 1 mol ( NH 2 ) 2 CO 1 mol H
= 1.03 1024 H atoms

Check
Does the answer look reasonable?
How many atoms of H would 60.06 g of urea contain?
Atomic Mass on the Periodic Table（元素週期表）

In each element's entry box, the

atomic number is at the top of
each box, and the symbol is in
the center. The atomic mass is at
the bottom of each box.
Some periodic tables may
provide more information, but all
periodic tables should include
the atomic number, element
symbol, and atomic mass.
 © UCLES 2023

at [Link] after the live examination series.

Assessment International Education Copyright Acknowledgements Booklet. This is produced for each series of examinations and is freely available to download
To avoid the issue of disclosure of answer-related information to candidates, all copyright acknowledgements are reproduced online in the Cambridge

The Periodic Table of Elements

Group
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 2

H He
hydrogen helium
Key

间
1.0 4.0
3 4 atomic number 5 6 7 8 9 10

Li Be atomic symbol B C N O F Ne
lithium beryllium name boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
6.9 9.0 relative atomic mass 10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 20.2
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
23.0 24.3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 27.0 28.1 31.0 32.1 35.5 39.9
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
9701/42/F/M/23

potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
39.1 40.1 45.0 47.9 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.8 58.9 58.7 63.5 65.4 69.7 72.6 74.9 79.0 79.9 83.8
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

28
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
85.5 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 95.9 – 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 57–71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba lanthanoids
Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
caesium barium hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
132.9 137.3 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 – – –
87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

Fr Ra actinoids
Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
francium radium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium copernicium nihonium flerovium moscovium livermorium tennessine oganesson
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
lanthanoids La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.4 – 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.1 175.0
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
actinoids Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium
– 232.0 231.0 238.0 – – – – – – – – – – –
一
Formula Mass（分子式質量）
Formula mass is the sum of the atomic masses (in amu) in a formula unit of an ionic
compound. not molecular
1 Na 22.99 amu
NaCl 1 Cl +35.45 amu
NaCl 58.44 amu

For any ionic compound

formula mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)
1 formula unit NaCl = 58.44 amu
1 mole NaCl = 58.44 g NaCl
 Percent Composition
Percent composition of an element in a compound
n  molar mass of element mr of dumat in famls
=
molar mass of compound
 100%
%
× 100

turof Formmle
n is the number of moles of the element in 1 mole of the compound
2  (12.01g )
%C = 100% = 52.14%
46.07 g
6  (1.008 g )
%H = 100% = 13.13%
46.07 g
1 (16.00 g )
%O = 100% = 34.73%
46.07 g

C 2H 6 O 52.14% + 13.13% + 34.73% = 100.0%

。
Example

Memonsc
Phosphoric acid (磷酸, H3PO4) is a colorless, syrupy(糖
漿狀) liquid used in detergents（洗滌劑）, fertilizers,
toothpastes, and in carbonated beverages for a “tangy”
flavor.

Calculate the percent composition by mass of H, P, and

O in this compound.
H3PO 4
Strategy
Recall the procedure for calculating a percentage. Assume that we have 1 mole of H 3PO4

The percent by mass of each element (H, P, and O) is given by the combined molar mass
of the atoms

Of the element in 1 mole of H3PO4 divided by the molar mass of H3PO4, then multiplied by
100 percent.
Solution
The molar mass of H3PO4 is 97.99 g. The percent by mass of each of the elements in H3PO4
is calculated as follows:

3 (1.008 g ) H
%H =  100% = 3.086%
97.99 g H 3 PO4
30.97 g P
%P =  100% = 31.61%
97.99 g H 3 PO4
4 (16.00 g ) O
%O =  100% = 65.31%
97.99 g H 3 PO4

Check
Do the percentages add to 100 percent? The sum of the percentages is (3.086% + 31.61% +
65.31%) = 100.01%. The small discrepancy（差異）from 100 percent is due to the way we
rounded off.
Percent Composition and Empirical Formulas

First, convert the mass percent of each element to grams of each

element. Often, chemists assume 100 g of the compound so that
the mass of each element is equal to the mass percent.
Then, divide each mass by the molar mass of the element to
convert to moles of each element.
Next, divide the moles of each element by the smallest number of
moles to calculate the mole ratio of elements in the compound.
Then, change the subscripts to integers to find the empirical
formula of the compound.
 Example

Ascorbic acid (抗壞血酸, vitamin C)

cures scurvy(壞血病).

It is composed of 40.92 percent

carbon (C), 4.58 percent hydrogen
(H), and 54.50 percent oxygen (O) by
mass. SU s 4 ss .

U 0 92 .

,
,

1400 1 008 后l 0

号
.

Determine its empirical formula.

d
mol 3 4 4 S4 3 4
1 1 33 1
.

4
.

smallest subscript
3
divide by
,

X3 3 Ψ 3
一
Solution
If we have 100 g of ascorbic acid, then each percentage can be
converted directly to grams. In this sample, there will be 40.92 g of C,
4.58 g of H, and 54.50 g of O. Because the subscripts in the formula
represent a mole ratio, we need to convert the grams of each element
to moles. The conversion factor needed is the molar mass of each
element. Let n represents the number of moles of each element so that
1 mol C
nC = 40.92 g C  = 3.407 mol C
12.01 g C
1 mol H
nH = 4.58 g H  = 4.54 mol H
1.008 g H
1mol O
nO = 54.50 g O  = 3.406 mol O
16.00 g O

Thus, we arrive at the formula C3.407 H 4.54O3.406 ,

Thus we arrive at the formula C3.407 H 4.54O3.406 ,
which gives the identity and the mole ratios of atoms present.
However, chemical formulas are written with whole numbers. Try to
convert to whole numbers by dividing all the subscripts by the
smallest subscript (3.406):

3.407 4.54 3.406

C: 1 H: = 1.33 O: =1
3.406 3.406 3.406

where the ≈ sign means “approximately equal to.”

This gives CH1.33O as the formula for ascorbic acid. Next, we need to
convert 1.33, the subscript for H, into an integer.
This can be done by a trial-and-error procedure:
1.33 × 1 = 1.33
1.33 × 2 = 2.66
1.33 × 3 = 3.99 < 4
Because 1.33 × 3 gives us an integer (4), we multiply all the subscripts
by 3 and obtain C3H4O3 as the empirical formula for ascorbic acid.

Check
Are the subscripts in C3H4O3 reduced to the smallest whole numbers?
 Example

Chalcopyrite (黃銅礦, CuFeS2) is

a principal mineral of copper.

Calculate the number of

kilograms of Cu in 3.71  103 kg
of chalcopyrite. 了 can kap kg
x

377 X 1 Chalcopyrite
183 .
9
×

63 Cu → 63 ss
s
cuFeSz → 183 .
。
Strategy
Chalcopyrite is composed of Cu, Fe, and S. The mass due to Cu is
based on its percentage by mass in the compound.

How do we calculate mass percent of an element?

Solution
The molar masses of Cu and CuFeS2 are 63.55 g and 183.5 g,
respectively. The mass percent of Cu is therefore

molar mass of Cu
%Cu =  100%
molar mass of CuFeS2
63.55 g
=  100% = 34.63%
183.5 g
To calculate the mass of Cu in a 3.71  10 kg sample of CuFeS 2, we
3

need to convert the percentage to a fraction (that is, convert 34.63

percent to 34.63 100 , or 0.3463) and write

mass of Cu in CuFeS2 = 0.3463  ( 3.71103 kg )

= 1.28 103 kg
Example

A sample of a compound contains 30.46 percent nitrogen(氮)

and 69.54 percent oxygen by mass, as determined by a
mass spectrometer.

In a separate experiment, the molar mass of the compound is

found to be between 90 g and 95 g.

g
Determine the molecular formula and the accurate molar
aoov
mass of the compound.
then 9
find ampeical
Mrofemprial
Strategy
To determine the molecular formula, we first need to determine the
empirical formula. Comparing the empirical molar mass to the
experimentally determined molar mass will reveal the relationship
between the empirical formula and molecular formula.

Solution
We start by assuming that there are 100 g of the compound. Then
each percentage can be converted directly to grams; that is, 30.46 g
of N and 69.54 g of O.
Example

Let n represent the number of moles of each element so that

1 mol N
nN = 30.46 g N  = 2.174 mol N
14.01 g N
1 mol O
nO = 69.54 g O  = 4.346 mol O
16.00 g O

Thus, we arrive at the formula N2.174O4.346 which gives the identity and
the ratios of atoms present. However, chemical formulas are written
with whole numbers.

Try to convert to whole numbers by dividing the subscripts by the

smaller subscript (2.174). After rounding off, we obtain NO2 as the
empirical formula.
The molecular formula might be the same as the empirical formula or
some integral multiple of it (for example, two, three, four, or more times
the empirical formula).

Comparing the ratio of the molar mass to the molar mass of the empirical
formula will show the integral relationship between the empirical and
molecular formulas.

The molar mass of the empirical formula NO2 is

empirical molar mass = 14.01 g + 2(16.00 g) = 46.01 g

Next, we determine the ratio between the molar mass and the
empirical molar mass
molar mass 90 g
= 2
empirical molar mass 46.01 g

The molar mass is twice the empirical molar mass. This means that
there are two NO2 units in each molecule of the compound, and the
molecular formula is (NO2)2 or N2O4. The actual molar mass of the
compound is two times the empirical molar mass, that is, 2(46.01 g)
or 92.02 g, which is between 90 g and 95 g.

NrOu
X rv 00 utstabl
Check
Note that in determining the molecular formula from the empirical
formula, we need only know the approximate molar mass of the
compound. The reason is that the true molar mass is an integral multiple
(1×, 2×, 3×, …) of the empirical molar mass. Therefore, the ratio (molar
mass/empirical molar mass) will always be close to an integer.

N2 O 4
Chemical Reactions and Equations

A process in which one or more substance(s) is changed into one or

more new substance(s) is a chemical reaction.
A chemical equation uses chemical symbols to show what happens
during a chemical reaction:
reactants → products
3 ways of representing the reaction of H2 with O2 to form H2O
Chemical Reactions and Equations

Two hydrogen molecules + One oxygen molecule → Two water molecules

2H 2 + O 2 → 2H 2 O
2 moles H 2 + 1 mole O 2 → 2 moles H 2 O
2 ( 2.02 g ) = 4.04 g H 2 + 32.00 g O 2 → 2 (18.02 g ) = 36.04 g H 2O
1 4 4 4 4 4 42 4 4 4 4 4 43 1 4 4 4 42 4 4 4 43
36.04 g reactants 36.04 g product

36.04 g reactants → 36.04 g product

Chemical Reactions and Equations

To calculate the mass of compound B from the mass of compound

A, first convert from mass of compound A to moles of compound A
using the molar mass of compound A.
Then, use the balanced chemical equation to convert from moles of
A to moles of B.
Then, use the molar mass of compound B to convert from moles of
B to mass of compound B.
How to “Read” Chemical Equations

2Mg + O 2 → 2MgO
2 atoms Mg + 1 molecule O 2 makes 2 formula units MgO
2 moles Mg + 1 mole O 2 makes 2 moles MgO
48.6 grams Mg + 32.0 grams O 2 makes 80.6gMgO
NOT
2 grams Mg + 1 grams O 2 makes 2g MgO
Balancing Chemical Equations

[Link] the correct formula(s) for the reactants on the left side and the
correct formula(s) for the product(s) on the right side of the equation.
Ethane（乙烷） reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water

C2 H6 + O 2 → CO 2 + H 2 O

[Link] the numbers in front of the formulas (coefficients) to make

the number of atoms of each element the same on both sides of the
equation. Do not change the subscripts.
2C2 H6 NOT C4 H12
Balancing Chemical Equations

[Link] by balancing those elements that appear in only one

reactant and one product.
C2 H 6 + O 2 → CO 2 + H 2O start with C or H but not O
 
2 carbon 1 carbon multiply CO 2 by 2
on left on right
C2 H 6 + O 2 → 2CO 2 + H 2 O
 
6 hydrogen 2 hydrogen multiply H 2 O by 3
on left on right
C2 H 6 + O 2 → 2CO 2 + 3H 2 O
Balancing Chemical Equations

[Link] those elements that appear in two or more

reactants or products.
7
C2 H6 + O2 → 2CO 2 + 3H 2O multiply O 2 by
2
  
2 oxygen 4 oxygen 3 oxygen = 7 oxygen on right
on left ( 2  2) ( 3 1)
7
C2 H6 + O 2 → 2CO 2 + 3H 2O remove fraction
2
multiply both sides by 2
2C2 H6 + 7O 2 → 4CO 2 + 6H 2 O
Balancing Chemical Equations

[Link] to make sure that you have the same number of each type of
atom on both sides of the equation.

2C2 H6 + 7O 2 → 4CO 2 + 6H 2 O

4C (2 × 2) 4C Reactants Products

12H (2 × 6) 12 (6 × 2) 4C 4C

12 H 12 H
14 O (7 × 2) 14 O (4 × 2 + 6)
14 O 14 O
When aluminum metal is exposed to air, a protective layer of
aluminum oxide (氧化鋁, Al2O3) forms on its surface. This layer
prevents further reaction between aluminum and oxygen, and it
is the reason that aluminum beverage cans do not corrode (被
腐蝕). [In the case of iron, the rust（銹）, or iron(III) oxide, that
forms are too porous（多孔的） to protect the iron metal
underneath, so rusting continues.]

Write a balanced equation for the formation of Al2O3.

2A(
+ 号O ~
→ AlzOs
Strategy
Remember that the formula of an element or compound cannot be
changed when balancing a chemical equation. The equation is balanced
by placing the appropriate coefficients in front of the formulas.

Solution
The unbalanced equation is

Al + O 2 → Al 2 O3

In a balanced equation, the number and types of atoms on each side of

the equation must be the same. We see that there is one Al atom on the
reactants side and there are two Al atoms on the product side.
 We can balance the Al atoms by placing a coefficient of 2 in front of Al
on the reactants side.
2Al + O 2 → Al 2 O3

There are two O atoms on the reactants side, and three O atoms on the
product side of the equation. We can balance the O atoms by placing a
coefficient of 3 in front of O2 on the reactants side.
2
3
2Al + O 2 → Al 2 O3
2

This is a balanced equation. However, equations are normally balanced

with the smallest set of whole-number coefficients.
Multiplying both sides of the equation by 2 gives whole-number coefficients.

 3 
2  2Al + O 2 → Al 2O3 
 2 
or
4Al + 3O 2 → 2Al 2 O3

Check
For an equation to be balanced, the number and types of atoms on each side of
the equation must be the same. The final tally is

Reactants Products
Al (4) Al (4)
O (6) O (6)

The equation is balanced. Also, the coefficients are reduced to the simplest set
of whole numbers.
Amounts of Reactants (反應物) and Products

1. Write balanced chemical equation

2. Convert quantities of known substances into moles
3. Use coefficients in balanced equation to calculate the number of moles of
the sought quantity

4. Convert moles of sought quantity into desired units

Amounts of Reactants and Products

On the molecular level, two molecules of hydrogen gas react with one
molecule of oxygen gas to produce two molecules of water. On the molar
level, two moles of H2 react with one mole of O2 to produce two moles of
H2O.
Regardless of the interpretation of the chemical reaction, the mass of the
reactants must equal the mass of the products, because mass cannot be
created or destroyed.
Example

The food we eat is degraded, or broken

down, in our bodies to provide energy for
growth and function. A general overall
equation for this very complex process
represents the degradation of glucose
(C6H12O6) to carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water (H2O):

C6 H12 O6 +6O 2 → 6CO 2 +6H 2O

C 6H12 O 6
If 856 g of C6H12O6 is consumed by a
person over a certain period, what is
the mass of CO2 produced?
Example

Strategy
Looking at the balanced equation, how do we compare the amounts of
C6H12O6 and CO2?

We can compare them based on the mole ratio from the balanced
equation. Starting with grams of C6H12O6, how do we convert to moles of
C6H12O6?

Once moles of CO2 are determined using the mole ratio from the
balanced equation, how do we convert to grams of CO2?
Example

Solution
We follow the preceding steps.
Step 1: The balanced equation is given in the problem.
Step 2: To convert grams of C6H12O6 to moles of C6H12O6, we write

1 mol C6 H12O6
856 g C 6 H 12 O 6  = 4.750 mol C6 H12O 6
180.2 g C 6 H 12 O 6

Step 3: From the mole ratio, we see that

1 mol C6H12O6≏ 6 mol CO2

Therefore, the number of moles of CO 2 formed is

6 mol CO 2
4.750 mol C 6 H 12 O 6  = 28.50 mol CO 2
1 mol C 6 H 12 O 6
Step 4: Finally, the number of grams of CO2 formed is given by
qur
9
44.01 g CO 2
28.50 mol CO 2  =1.25 103 g CO 2
1 mol CO 2 comc
After some practice, we can combine the conversion steps
grams of C6 H12 O6 → moles of C6 H12 O6 → moles of CO 2 → grams of CO2
into one equation:
1 mol C 6 H 12 O 6 6 mol CO 2 44.01 g CO 2
mass of CO 2 = 856 g C 6 H 12 O 6   
180.2 g C 6 H 12 O 6 1 mol C 6 H 12 O 6 1 mol CO 2
=1.25 103 g CO 2
Check
Does the answer seem reasonable?

Should the mass of CO2 produced be larger than the mass

of C6H12O6 reacted, even though the molar mass of CO2 is
considerably less than the molar mass of C6H12O6?

What is the mole ratio between CO2 and C6H12O6?

Example

All alkali metals （堿金屬）react with water to

produce hydrogen gas and the corresponding alkali
metal hydroxide（氫氧化物）.

A typical reaction is that between lithium （鋰）and

water:
Lithium reacting with water to
2Li ( s ) + 2H 2O ( l ) → 2LiOH ( aq ) + H 2 ( g ) produce hydrogen gas.

How many grams of Li are needed to produce 9.89 g

of H2?
Strategy
The question asks for number of grams of reactant (Li) to form a specific amount of
product (H2). Therefore, we need to reverse the steps. From the equation we see
that 2 mol Li ≏ 1 mol H2.
Solution
The conversion steps are

grams of H 2 → moles of H 2 → moles of Li → grams of Li

Combining these steps into one equation, we write

1 mol H 2 2 mol Li 6.941 g Li
9.89 g H 2    = 68.1 g Li
2.016 g H 2 1 mol H 2 1 mol Li

Check
There are roughly 5 moles of H2 in 9.89 g H2, so we need 10 moles of Li. From the
approximate molar mass of Li (7 g), does the answer seem reasonable?
Limiting Reagent (反應物):

Reactant used up first in the reaction

CO + 2H 2 → CH 3OH Methanol

H 2 is the limiting reagent

CO is the excess reagent

78
Example
Urea ( NH 2 )2 CO  is prepared by reacting ammonia
with carbon dioxide:

2NH 3 ( g ) +CO 2 ( g ) → ( NH 2 )2 CO ( aq ) +H 2O ( l )

In one process, 637.2 g of NH3 are treated with 1142 g of CO 2.

a) Which of the two reactants is the limiting reagent? (NH2 ) 2 CO

b) Calculate the mass of (NH2)2CO formed.

c) How much excess reagent (in grams) is left at the end of the
reaction?
a) Strategy
The reactant that produces fewer moles of product is the limiting reagent because it
limits the amount of product that can be formed.

How do we convert from the amount of reactant to amount of product?

Perform this calculation for each reactant, then compare the moles of product,
(NH2)2CO, formed by the given amounts of NH3 and CO2 to determine which reactant
is the limiting reagent.
Solution
We carry out two separate calculations. First, starting with 637.2 g of NH 3, we calculate
the number of moles of (NH2)2CO that could be produced if all the NH3 reacted
according to the following conversions:

grams of NH 3 → moles of NH 3 → moles of ( NH 2 )2 CO

Combining these conversions in one step, we write

1 mol NH 3 1 mol ( NH 2 )2 CO
moles of ( NH 2 )2 CO = 637.g NH 3  
17.03 g NH 3 2 mol NH 3
=18.71 mol ( NH 2 )2 CO
 Second, for 1142 g of CO2, the conversions are
grams of CO 2 → moles of CO 2 → moles of ( NH 2 )2 CO

The number of moles of (NH2)2CO that could be produced if all the CO2 reacted is

1 mol CO 2 1 mol ( NH 2 )2 CO
moles of ( NH 2 )2 CO =1142 g CO 2  
44.01 g CO 2 1 mol CO 2
= 25.95 mol ( NH 2 )2 CO

It follows, therefore, that NH3 must be the limiting reagent because it produces a smaller
amount of (NH2)2CO.
Example
Urea ( NH 2 )2 CO  is prepared by reacting ammonia
with carbon dioxide:

2NH 3 ( g ) +CO 2 ( g ) → ( NH 2 )2 CO ( aq ) +H 2O ( l )

In one process, 637.2 g of NH3 are treated with 1142 g of CO 2.

a) Which of the two reactants is the limiting reagent? (NH2 ) 2 CO

b) Calculate the mass of (NH2)2CO formed.

c) How much excess reagent (in grams) is left at the end of the
reaction?
b) Strategy
We determined the moles of (NH2)2CO produced in part (a), using NH3 as the limiting
reagent. How do we convert from moles to grams?
Solution
The molar mass of (NH2)2CO is 60.06 g. We use this as a conversion factor to convert
from moles of (NH2)2CO to grams of (NH 2)2CO:
60.06 g ( NH 2 ) 2 CO
mass of ( NH 2 )2 CO =18.71 mol ( NH 2 ) 2 CO 
1 mol ( NH 2 ) 2 CO
=1124 g ( NH 2 )2 CO

Check
Does your answer seem reasonable? 18.71 moles of product are formed. What is the
mass of 1 mole of (NH2)2CO?
Example
Urea ( NH 2 )2 CO  is prepared by reacting ammonia
with carbon dioxide:

2NH 3 ( g ) +CO 2 ( g ) → ( NH 2 )2 CO ( aq ) +H 2O ( l )

In one process, 637.2 g of NH3 are treated with 1142 g of CO 2.

a) Which of the two reactants is the limiting reagent? (NH2 ) 2 CO

b) Calculate the mass of (NH2)2CO formed.

c) How much excess reagent (in grams) is left at the end of the
reaction?
c) Strategy
Working backward, we can determine the amount of CO 2 that reacted to produce 18.71
moles of (NH2)2CO. The amount of CO2 left over is the difference between the initial
amount and the amount reacted.
Solution
Starting with 18.71 moles of (NH2)2CO, we can determine the mass of CO2 that reacted
using the mole ratio from the balanced equation and the molar mass of CO 2. The
conversion steps are

moles of ( NH 2 )2 CO → moles of CO 2 → grams of CO 2

Combining these conversions in one step, we write
1 mol CO 2 44.01 g CO 2
mass of CO 2 reacted = 18.71 mol ( NH 2 ) 2 CO  
1 mol ( NH 2 ) 2 CO 1 mol CO 2
= 823.4 g CO 2

The amount of CO2 remaining (in excess) is the difference between the initial amount
(1142 g) and the amount reacted (823.4 g):
mass of CO2 remaining = 1142 g − 823.4 g = 319 g
Reaction Yield（反應產率）

Theoretical Yield is the amount of product that would result if all the limiting
reagent reacted.
Actual Yield is the amount of product actually obtained from a reaction.

Actual Yield
%Yield = 100%
Theoretical Yield
 Mr of Ticl 4 =
189 7 .

Example µg =
24 32
.

3 S 4S
Cl .
=

Ti = 47
Titanium (鈦) is a strong, lightweight, corrosion-resistant metal that
is used in rockets, aircraft, jet engines, and bicycle frames. It is
prepared by the reaction of titanium(IV) chloride with molten (融化的)
magnesium (鎂) between 950° C and 1150° C: s
64 × 10
TiCl 4 ( g ) + 2Mg ( l ) →C
Ti ( s ) + 2MgCl 2 ( l )
U
0
.

Tiel —
2

186610 437S mel 464638 . 1 S 79 mlvgorder

.
如
@ =
2323 × 10 sx
leffover →Fi 9
In a certain industrial operation 3.54 × 107 g of 187 + 10
sg
TiCl4 are reacted with 1.13×107 g of Mg. threo x
1 o0
% X .

ccfel
limitig
a) Calculate the theoretical yield of Ti in grams.

b) Calculate the percent yield if 7.91×106 g of Ti are actually

obtained. actoal 7 9 × 106
)
%
.

88 3
=

the 1 87
.
× 10
s
X 47 .
88 = .
一
一
、
一一
一》
a) Strategy
Because there are two reactants, this is likely to be a limiting reagent problem. The
reactant that produces fewer moles of product is the limiting reagent.

How do we convert from amount of reactant to amount of product?

Perform this calculation for each reactant, then compare the moles of product, Ti, formed.
Solution
Carry out two separate calculations to see which of the two reactants is the limiting
reagent. First, starting with 3.54×107 g of TiCl4, calculate the number of moles of Ti that
could be produced if all the TiCl 4 reacted. The conversions are

grams of TiCl 4 → moles of TiCl 4 → moles of Ti

so that
1 mol TiCl4 1 mol Ti
moles of Ti = 3.54 107 g TiCl 4  
189.7 g TiCl 4 1 mol TiCl 4
=1.87 10 mol Ti
5
Next, we calculate the number of moles of Ti formed from 1.13
× 107 g of Mg. The conversion steps are
grams of Mg → moles of Mg → moles of Ti
And we write
1 mol Mg 1 mol Ti
moles of Ti =1.13 107 g Mg  
24.31 g Mg 2 mol Mg
= 2.32 105 mol Ti

Therefore, TiCl4 is the limiting reagent because it produces a

smaller amount of Ti.

The mass of Ti formed is

47.88 g Ti
1.87 105 mol Ti  = 8.95 106 g Ti
1 mol Ti
b) Strategy
The mass of Ti determined in part (a) is the theoretical yield. The
amount given in part (b) is the actual yield of the reaction.

Solution
The percent yield is given by

actual yield
% yield = 100%
theoretical yield

7.91106 g
= 100%
8.95 10 g
6

= 88.4%

Check
Should the percent yield be less than 100 percent?