Matrices
Matrix 𝐴 has 𝑚 rows and 𝑛 columns is said as matrix of order 𝑚 × 𝑛.
A zero matrix, or null matrix, is an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix consisting of all 0s.
Scalar multiplication is to multiply each of the elements within the matrix by the scalar.
Matrix multiplication 𝑨 × 𝑩 is the repeated sum of the products of each element in the 𝑖th row of 𝑨
with the corresponding element in the 𝑗th column of 𝑩. The number of columns in 𝑨 must
equal the number of rows in 𝑩.
The identity matrix, 𝑰, is a square matrix in which the elements in the leading diagonal are all 1 and
all other elements are 0.
Matrix multiplications are not commutative, but they are associative and distributive.
Inverse of a 𝟐 × 𝟐 matrix
The inverse of matrix 𝑨 is the matrix 𝑨−1 that has the property 𝑨𝑨−1 = 𝑨−1 𝑨 = 𝑰.
𝑎 𝑐 𝒂 𝒄
Matrix 𝐴 = ( ) has a determinant matrix of det 𝑨 = |𝑨| = | | = 𝒂𝒅 − 𝒃𝒄.
𝑏 𝑑 𝒃 𝒅
𝑎 𝑐 𝒅 −𝒄
Matrix 𝐴 = ( ) has adjugate matrix of adj 𝑨 = ( ).
𝑏 𝑑 −𝒃 𝒂
1 1 𝑑 −𝑐
Inverse of matrix 𝐴 is 𝐴−1 = adj 𝐴 = ( ).
det 𝐴 𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐 −𝑏 𝑎
If determinant matrix 𝐴 is 0, then the matrix is singular and matrix 𝐴 has no inverse.
Inverse of a 𝟑 × 𝟑 matrix
Step 1: Calculate the co-factor of each element to make the adjugate matrix.
Find co-factors by crossing out the corresponding row and column of the element, leaving four
elements behind. Then calculate the ‘determinant’ of these remaining elements as if it were a 2 × 2
matrix.
Place the co-factors into a 3 × 3 matrix called the adjugate matrix:
• The co-factors have had a transposition, which means that the rows and columns have been
swapped.
• The co-factors are multiplied by +1 or −1 according to this ‘checkerboard of signs’:
+ − +
(− + − )
+ − +
Step 2: find the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix.
The determinant of matrix is found by multiplying each element in the matrix by its resultant element
in adjugate matrix for any single row or column.
It is usual practice to use the first row of the matrix (and so the first column of the adjugate matrix) to
find the determinant.
Transformations
Let the transformation matrix be 𝑴. The transformation of any point (𝑥, 𝑦) to its image (𝑥 ′ , 𝑦′) as:
𝑥 𝑥′
𝑴 (𝑦) = ( )
𝑦′
In general, an anticlockwise rotation of angle 𝜃 about the origin is represented by the matrix
cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
( )
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
In general, a two-way stretch of scale factor 𝑎 in the 𝑥-direction and scale factor 𝑏 in the 𝑦-direction is
represented by the matrix
𝑎 0
( )
0 𝑏
In general, a shear parallel to the 𝑥-axis with a shear factor of 𝑘, and parallel to the 𝑦-axis with a shear
factor of 𝑙 is represented by the matrix
1 𝑘
( )
𝑙 1
In general, a reflection in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 tan 𝜃 (where 𝜃 is the angle the line makes with the 𝑥-axis) is
represented by the matrix
cos 2𝜃 sin 2𝜃
( )
sin 2𝜃 − cos 2𝜃
Inverse transformation
The inverse of transformation matrix is simply the transformation that returns the image to the original
object.
For a transformation matrix, 𝑨, the value of the determinant, det 𝑨, is the scale factor of the
enlargement of the area from the original shape to the image.
𝑥 𝑥′
𝑀 (𝑦) = ( )
𝑦′
𝑥 𝑥′
(𝑦) = 𝑀−1 ( )
𝑦′
Invariant points and invariant lines
Points that transform to themselves are called invariant points.
All points on an invariant line will be transformed to a point on the same line.
𝑥 𝑥
𝑀 (𝑦 ) = ( 𝑦 )