Engineering Methodology
1- Use case / user needs: defines the need for such a product what
the market is looking for, what problem is trying to be solved.
2- Design inputs/ requirements: product requirements based on use
case, standards, regulations, risk assessment and functional /
performance requirements
3- Design & development outputs/ specifications: Engineering
drawings, specifications or manufacturing instructions. Describes all
the components and assemblies of the device. Must be defines in a
way that allows evaluation of conformance to the design inputs.
4- Verification: activities done to ensure the results of design and
development outputs meet the product requirements. Weight limits
strength tests, Battery life, speed any tests on technical
specifications are easy.
5- Validation: Activities done to ensure the product meets the use
case, trial runs and testing. Giving the device to users and getting
feedback from the intended application.
6- Reflection: Make changes based on any feedback or problems in
the verification and validation stages.
Engineering Drawings
Types of
Drawings:
- Orthogonal 2D representations in third angle projection
- Isometric view with 30 degree incline from horizontal
LML: least material limit Materials
MML: Most material limit Measures of strength:
- Tensile
o Use 0.2% offset method to find proof stress. Steel elastic limit
is half proof stress
o At UTS material stops behaving like a cylinder, it does
unexpected
o Material breaks at 45O because of
the atomic friendzone
- Compression
o Is the opposite side of the SS
diagram. When strain becomes
negative
- Fatigue: Repeated stress loading, Shear,
bending, tensile. Changes SS diagram to
hysteris loop
o Cause dislocations in the lattice
- Creep
o Material not reverting to initial size when being unloaded. It
begins to stretch permanently even though in elastic range.
o Diffusion: atoms jump around and create holes
o Dislocations: The lattice breaks perfect ranks
o Grain boundary sliding
- Corrosion: when elements leave the material to bond with oxygen
(iron oxide)
o Loose strong atoms (iron), lose material cross-section, Starts
to crack
Youngs modulus is a measure of how strongly a materials atoms are
bonded together.
Materials Science
Bonds
- Covalent Bonding: Share electrons to complete the outer shell.
Typically found in ceramics it is the strongest bond. Atoms can’t
move very far from each other. Insulator because a potential
(voltage) can’t move the electrons. Strong at high temperatures
because gain the electron doesn’t want to be released.
- Ionic Bonding: electrons are biased more towards one atom. More
room for movement the bond isn’t as rigid. Will maybe pass a
current if voltages are high enough but not really.
- Metallic Bonding: Electrons are shared by atoms in their shells
further out. Atoms are freer to move about as they aren’t as rigid as
ionic and covalent bonding. This is why metals are ductile with
lowed young’s modulus. Are conductive because that electron is
susceptible to being moved by a relatively low voltage. Warm up
pretty quickly because that electron isn’t held down.
- Molecular bonding: Atoms are polarized and then attract each
other (electro-magnetism). Not directly sharing electrons but their
difference in charge somewhat balances them out. Not a very
secure bond will fall apart at lower temperatures. Not conductive as
electrons aren’t free to move they are still locked in by the
difference in charge.
Atom Structure
- Body Centre cubic: Not most stable structure it can be pushed
and pulled with little resistance from other atoms (they remain in
the atomic friend zone when you move it)
- Face centre cubic: Much better stability and atoms can’t really be
moved as they interact with many more atoms which hold them in
place.
- Hexagonal Close Packed: Hexagon cage with three atoms in the
middle.
- Molecular Structure: Form up usually in hexagons and make
carbon chains (plastics). Super stretchy not very strong.
Building strength
- Solid Solution Strengthening: Put big atoms into the structure to
prevent diffusions and dislocations by not allowing atoms to move
as easily.
- Precipitates:
o Grow grain boundary carbides. Carbon makes carbons to grit
up the grain boundaries.
o Grain precipitates. Forming globs of the material within the
grains like icebergs.
Microstructure: all about the crystallization of the atoms stacking up and
forming grains.
- Grain size: the more grain boundaries the stronger the material as
they absorb more damage (dislocations). Can be changed by
casting, forging, and heat treating.
- Grain shape: is determined by how you turn the liquid into a solid.
Casting into a cold mould will result in small grains near the outside
then flat columnar grains in the middle.
- Grain Orientation: If crystals are lined up all in the same direction
the material will have a strong axis and a weak axis kind of like
timber. Is determined by forming process used.
- Residual stresses: Caused by manufacturing and forming
processes.
- Heat treating: Set crystal structure, set grain size, grow
precipitates
o Quenching: Heat above 723 (steel) and quench fast to from
face centre cubic. No precipitates all atoms are used to form
the grains.
o Normalising: Heat up again around the 723 mark atoms
want to restack so they start growing the grain size.
o Aging: Heat up again to grow precipitates that are desired.
o Tempering: heat again to stabilise microstructure, often
soften it and reduce residual stresses.
Formulas
σ =Eϵ