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RELATIONs AND Shot Revision Video

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FUNCTIONs

Reflexive: Symmetric: Transitive : Equivalence Relation:

If (a, a) ∈ R, ∀ a ∈ A. If a R b ⇒ b R a, ∀ a, b ∈ A If a R b and b R c ⇒ a R c, ∀ A relation R on a non-empty set A is called
i.e., a R a, ∀ a ∈ A i.e., if (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ (b, a) ∈ R, a, b, c ∈ A i.e. If (a, b) ∈ R and an equivalence relation if and only if it is
∀ a, b ∈ A (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R, ∀ a, Reflexive, Symmetric as well as Transitive.
b, c ∈ A e.g.: Let T be the set of all triangles in
a plane with R a relation in T given by
R={(T1, T2 ) : T1 is congruent to T2}. Show
that R is an equivalence relation.
Sol: R is reflexive, since every triangle is
Definition: congruent to itself.
Type of Relations Further, (T1, T2 ) ∈R ⇒ T1 is congruent
For any two non-empty sets A and B, every subset
of A × B defines a relation from A to B and every to T2 ⇒ T2 is congruent to T1 ⇒ (T2, T1) ∈ R.
relation from A to B is a subset of A × B. Hence, R is symmetric. Moreover, (T1, T2),
(T2, T3 )∈ R ⇒ T1 is congruent to T2 and
If (a,b) ∈ R, then a R b, R ⊆ A × B T2 is congruent to T3 ⇒ T1 is congruent to
‰ If (a, b) ∈ R, then a R b is read as ‛a is related Relations T3 ⇒ (T1, T3) ∈R. Hence, R is transitive.
to b’. Therefore, R is an equivalence relation.
‰ If (a, b) ∉ R, then a R b is read as ‛a is not
related to b’.
Bijective Function:
A function f : A → B, is both one-one and onto
RELATIONS function, known as bijective function.
AND e.g.: Prove that the function f : R → R, given by
Definition: FUNCTIONS f(x) = 2x, is one-one and onto.
Let A and B are two non-empty sets. A function f Sol: Let f(x1) = f(x2) ⇒ 2x1 = 2x2 ⇒ x1 = x2
from set A to set B is a rule which associated each therefore f(x) is one-one Also, given any real
element of A to a unique element of B, denoted number y in R, there exists y in R such that
by f : A → B 2
‰ Set A is called domain of function ‛f ’ Functions  y  y
f   = 2   = y. Hence, f is onto.
‰ Set B is called co-domain of function ‛f ’ 2 2
Y
If element x of A corresponds to y(∈B) under the
function f, then we say that y is the image of x and
write f(x) = y. y = f(x) = 2x
Types of Functions X′ O X

One-one Function or Injective

Function:
Into Function:
A function is said to be one-one
function if different elements in a A function f : A → B is said to be Onto or Surjective Function:
Many–one Function:
domain have different images in a into function if there exists at least
A function f : A → B is said one element in set B having no pre- f : A → B, said to be onto function if
co-domain.
to be many one if more than image in set A, is known as into every element in set B has a pre-image
If f(x1) = f(x2) then x1 = x2, f(x) is one element in set A have the in set A such that f(x) = y
function.
one - one function. same image in Set B. i.e. Range of f = co-domain of f.
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Inverse Trigonometric Scan This QR Code

Functions

y y
y y
  
2 
 2
x' x x' 2
x 
–1 0 1 0 1 –2 –1
–1 x' x 2
– 0 1 x' x
2 –1 0 1
2
–
y' y' 2
y'
y = sin–1 x y = cos–1 x
y' y = sec–1 x:
y
y y = cosec–1 x


2
2
Function Domain Range

Inverse Trigonometric
Domain and Range of
x' x   
x sin x   2 , 2 
–1
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x' [–1, 1]
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4

Functions
 cos–1 x [–1, 1] [0, ]
2
  
y' y' tan–1 x (–, )   , 
2 2
y = tan x–1
y = cot x –1

cot–1 x (–, ) (0, )


(i) sin x : R → [–1, 1] sec–1 x R – (–1, 1)  0,     2
Trigonometric Function

(ii) cos x : R → [–1, 1] Graph of Inverse

 Trigonometric Function   
(iii) tan x : R –  x : x  (2n  1) , n  Z  → R cosec–1 x R – (–1, 1)   ,   {0}
 2   2 2
(iv) cot x : R – {x : x = n, n Z} → R
 INVERSE
(v) sec x : R –  x : x  (2n  1) , n  Z  → R – (–1, 1) TRIGONOMETRIC Some Important Properties
 2 
FUNCTIONS
(vi) cosec x : R – {x : x = n, n Z} → R – (–1, 1)  Property IV:
(i) sin–1 (–x) = – sin–1 x, x  [-1,1]
(ii) cos–1 (–x) = π – cos–1 x, x  [-1, 1]
(iii) tan–1 (–x) = – tan–1 x, x  R
 Property I: (iv) cosec–1 (coses ) = , (iv) cosec–1 (–x) = – cosec–1 x, |x| ≥ 1
1   (v) sec–1 (–x) = π – sec–1x, |x| ≥ 1
(i) sin–1 = cosec–1x, x ≥ 1 for all    ,  ,  0
x 2 2 (vi) cot–1 (–x) = π – cot–1x, x  R
or x –1 (v) sec–1 (sec ) = ,  Property V:

(ii) cos–1
1
= sec–1x, x ≥ 1 for all    0,  ,   
x 2 (i) sin–1 x + cos–1 x 
, for all x [–1,1]
(vi) cot–1 (cot ) = , 2
or x –1 ,
for all (0, ) (ii) tan x + cot x  for all xR
–1 –1

1 2
(iii) tan–1 = cot–1x, x > 0  Property III: 
x (iii) sec–1 x + cosec–1 x  , for all x   – , –1]  [ 1,  
(i) sin (sin–1 x) = x, 2
 Property II: for all x [– 1, 1]  Property VI:
(i) sin–1 (sin ) = , (ii) cos (cos–1 x) = x, x y
   for all x[– 1, 1] (i) tan–1x + tan–1 y = tan–1 , xy < 1
for all    – ,  1  xy
 2 2 (iii) tan (tan–1 x) = x, x  y
(ii) tan–1x – tan–1 y = tan–1 xy > – 1
(ii) cos–1 (cos ) = , for all xR 1  xy
(iv) cosec (cosec–1 x) = x, 2x
for all [0,  ] (iii) 2tan x = sin
–1 –1
, x 1
for all x   – , –1]  [1,   1  x2
(iii) tan–1 (tan ) = , 1  x 2
(v) sec (sec–1 x) = x, (iv) 2tan–1 x = cos–1 ,x  0
for all   –  ,   for all x  – , –1]  [1,  
1  x2
  2 x
 2 2 (v) 2tan–1 = tan–1 , –1 < x < 1
(vi) cot (cot–1 x) = x, for all x R 1 x
2
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Matrices Scan This QR Code

Multiplication of Matrices Inverse of a matrix A matrix is a definite collection of quantities like

Let A and B be two matrices such that the number of A square matrix A is said to be numbers, symbols, or expressions, arranged in a
columns of A is same as number of rows of B i.e., invertible (non-singular) if there tabular form of rows and columns. Basically it is an
A = [aij]m×p & B = [bij]p×n exists a matrix B such that, AB = I ordered arrangement of data.
p
= BA. These quantities are called the elements or entries
Then AB = [cij]m×n where cij = ∑ aik bkj , which is the dot
B is called the inverse of A or of the matrix.
k =1
reciprocal of A and it is denoted by The order of a matrix is written as the number of
product of ith row vector of A and jth column vector of B. A–1. Thus, rows by the number of columns.
Notes: The product AB is defined iff the number of A–1 = B ⇔ AB = I = BA e.g.: A 2 × 2 matrix consists of two rows and
columns of A is equal to the number of rows of 2 columns. It has a total of 4 elements.
B. A is called as premultiplier and B is called as If a matrix has m rows and n columns then the order
post multiplier. AB is defined ⇒ BA is defined. of matrix is written as m × n and we call it as order
m by n

Matrix Elements
7 8
1 2 3 58 64
× 9 10 = Inverse of a
row 1 a11 a12
4 5 6 139 154 Matrix
11 12 row 2 a21 a22

Definition and
(1, 2, 3) (7, 9, 11) = 1 × 7 + 2 × 9 + 3 × 11= 58 row 3 a31 a32
Operations

its Types
 
column 1 column 2
• Dimension of the matrix  m  n
• Entries of the aij
matrix  
Addition of Matrices: row column
Let A and B be two matrices of same order (i.e., • row
 
column
comparable matrices). Then A + B is defined to be m  n Matrix
A + B = [aij]m×n + [bij]m×n = [cij]m×n where cij = aij + MATRICES
bij ∀ i and j.
1 −1  −1 2 
e.g.: A =   , B =  −2 −3 ,
2 3  
Transpose of a Matrix
0 1
A+B=  
0 0

Let A =[aij]m×n , then the transpose of A is denoted by A′(or AT) and is defined as
A′ = [bij]n×m where bij = aji ∀ i & j.
i.e., A′ is obtained by rewriting all the rows of A as columns
Equality of Matrices
(or by rewriting all the columns of A as rows).
e.g.:
1 a 
1 2 3
= A =  , A′  2 b 
Two matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] are said to be equal if a b c  3 c 
(i) They are of the same order
Results:
(ii) Each element of A is equal to the corresponding element of
1. For any matrix A = [aij]m×n, (A′)′ = A.
B, that is aij = bij for all i and j.
2. Let λ be a scalar & A be a matrix. Then (λA)′ = λA′.
2 3  2 3
For example,   and  0 1 are equal matrices but
3. (A + B)′ = A′ + B′ and (A – B)′ = A′ – B′ for two comparable matrices A and B.
 0 1   4. (A1 ± A2 ± ... ± An)′ = A1′ ± A2′ ± ... ± An′, where Ai are comparable.
 3 2  2 3 5. Let A = [aij]m×p and B = [bij]p×n, then (AB)′ = B′A′.
0 1  and  0 1 are not equal matrices. Symbolically, 6. (A1 A2 ... An)′ = An′. An–1′ ... A2′ . A1′, provided the product is defined.
   
if two matrices A and B are equal, we write A = B. 7. IT = I, where I is an identity matrix.
8. tr(A) = tr(AT), where tr(A) is a trace of a square matrix.
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Determinants Scan This QR Code

Let A = [a]n×n be a n × n matrix. Determinant of A is defined as

|A| = |aij|n×n.
Let ∆ be a determinant. Then the minor of element aij denoted by Mij is Determinant can be represented as det(A) or |A| or ∆ or D.
defined as the determinant of the submatrix obtained by deleting ith row Element of a determinant is denoted by aij, where i and j
and jth column of ∆. Cofactor of element aij denoted by Cij is defined as represent row and column number respectively.
Cij = (– 1)i+j Mij.  a11 a12 a13 
a b c Now, let A =  a21 a22 a23  be a third order square matrix,
 
e.g.: ∆ = p q r  a31 a32 a33 
x y z
a11 a12 a13
q r then determinant is | A | = a21 a22 a23
M11 = = qz − yr = C11.
y z a31 a32 a33

a b = a11(a22 a33 – a32 a23) – a12 (a21 a33 – a31 a23) + a13 (a21 a32 – a31 a22)
M 23 = = ay – bx, C23= – (ay – bx) = bx – ay.
x y
e.g.  5 3 5 3
= A 
−1
=
4  ,| A | −=1 4
23
 

Minors and Cofactors of a Matrix

Adjoint of matrix: The transpose

of cofactor matrix of A is called as Determinants of Square Matrix
Adjoint and Inverse

adjoint of A, denoted as adj A.

of a Matrix

adj A = [dij]n where dij = [Cji] ∀ i, j

DETERMINANTS
Inverse of matrix: A be a non-
singular matrix. Properties of Determinants
Then, A−1 = 1 ( Adj. A)
| A|

‰ The value of the determinant remains unchanged, if rows are

changed into columns and columns are changed into rows.
e.g.: |A′| = |A|
Applications of Determinants and Matrices ‰ If A = [aij]n×n, n > 1 and B be the matrix obtained from A by
interchanging two of its rows or columns, then
det (B) = – det (A)
‰ If two rows (or columns) of a square matrix A are proportional,
The system of linear equations is given by then | A | = 0.
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1 ‰ | B | = k | A |, where B is the matrix obtained from A, by
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2 multiplying one row (or column) of A by k.
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3 ‰ | kA | = kn | A |, where A is a matrix of order n × n.
 a1 x + b1 y + c1 z   d1   a1 b1 c1   x   d1  ‰ If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is the
⇒  a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d  ⇒ a b2 c2   y = d  sum of two or mores, then the determinant can be expressed
   2  2  2
as the sum of two or more determinants.
 a3 x + b3 y + c3 z   d3   a3 b3 c3   z   d3 
⇒ AX = B ⇒ A–1AX = A–1B a1 + a2 b c a1 b c a2 b c
e.g.: p1 + p2 q r = p1 q r + p2 q r
⇒ X = A–1 B = Adj A · B
| A| u1 + u2 v w u1 v w u2 v w
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Continuity and Scan This QR Code

Differentiability

‰ Let f and g be two real continuous functions at a A function y = f(x) is said to be differentiable
d 1
real number c. Then at a point a, if at x = a left hand derivative sin −1 x = , for –1 < x < 1
f ′ (a–) and right hand derivative f ′ (a+) both dx 1 − x2
(i) f + g is continuous at x = c.
exist finitely and are equal. There common d −1 , for –1 < x < 1
(ii) f – g is continuous at x = c. cos −1 x =
value is called derivative of f(x) at x = a.
(iii) f . g is continuous at x = c. dx 1 − x2

Trigonometric Functions
Right hand derivative at x = a.

Derivatives of Inverse
 f f ( a + h) − f ( a ) d 1
=
(iv)   is continuous at x = c, (provided g(c) ≠ 0). f ′(a + ) lim , (h > 0) sec −1 x = , for |x| > 1
 g h →0 h dx | x | x2 − 1
‰ If f is constant function i.e., f(x) = λ then the
Left hand derivative at x = a:
d −1 , for |x| > 1
function (λ . g) defined by (λ . g) (x) = λ . g(x) is f ( a − h) − f ( a ) cosec −1 x =
= f ′(a − ) lim , (h > 0) dx | x | x2 − 1
also continuous. h →0 −h
‰ If f is constant function f(x) = λ, then the function Thus f(x) is differentiable at x = a if f ′ (a–) d 1 , for x ∈ R
tan −1 x =
λ λ λ = f ′ (a+) at some fixed finite quantity. dx 1 + x2
defined by ( x) = is also continuous
g g g ( x) d −1 , for x ∈ R
cot −1 x =
wherever g(x) ≠ 0. dx 1 + x2

Algebra of Differentiability If u, v are functions of x, then

Continuous Functions d ( u ± v ) du dv
= ±
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at dx dx dx
Function at a Point

a point x = a of its domain if and only if it d dv du

(=
uv ) u +v (Product Rule)
Continuity of a

satisfies the following three conditions: Derivatives dx dx dx

Algebra of

f(a) exists. (‛a’ lies in the domain of f )

du dv
lim f ( x) exist i.e. lim
= f ( x) lim
= f ( x) f (a )
CONTINUITY AND v −u
x→ a x →a +
x →a−
d  u dx dx (Quotient Rule)
=
DIFFERENTIABILITY dx  v  v2

Given a composite function y = f(x), i.e. a Derivatives of Functions in

function represented by y = f(u), u = φ (x) Parametric Forms
dy df du Derivatives
or y = f [f(x)], then y=′ = . . of Composite In order to find derivatives of function in such a
dx du dx
Functions form, we use chain rule.
This is called the chain rule. dy dy dx
= .
dt dx dt
Derivatives of Second Order Logarithmic dy g ′ (t )  dy dx 
Implicit Functions =  as g ′ (t ) and
= f ′ (t )
=
Derivative Differentiation dx f ′ (t ) dt dt 

If a function is written in the form f(x, y) = 0, [Provided f ′(t) ≠ 0]

known as implicit form. Let y = f(x). Then dy= f ′ ( x)
dx
Working rule:
‰ Differentiate each term of f(x, y) = 0 with Again on differentiating w.r.t x. Then, the If differentiation of an expression or an equation
respect to x. d  dy  is done after taking log on both sides, then it is
left hand side becomes   which is
dy on one dx  dx  called logarithmic differentiation.
‰ Collect the terms containing If y = [f(x)]g(x) where f(x) and g(x) are functions of
dx called the second order derivative of y x. To find the derivative of this type of functions
side and the terms not involving dy/dx on d2y we proceed as follows: Let y = [f(x)]g(x). Taking
w.r.t. x and denoted by . logarithm on both sides, we have log y = g(x).
the other side. dx 2
log f(x) and then we differentiate w.r.t. x.
‰ Express dy/dx as a function of x or y or The second order derivative of f(x) is
both. denoted by f ′′ (x).
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Derivatives

First Derivative Test: Let f be continuous at a critical

point c in open interval. Then. Second Derivative Test: Let f be a function defined on a
‰ If f ′(x) > 0 at every point sufficiently close to and given interval, f is twice differentiable at c. Then
to the left of (c, f(c)) and f ′(x) < 0 at every point ‰ x = c is a point of local maxima if f ′(c) = 0 and f ″(c) < 0,
sufficiently close to and to the right of (c, f(c)), then f (c) is the local maxima of f.
c is a point of local maxima.
‰ x = c is a point of local minima if f ′(c) = 0 and f ″(c) > 0.
‰ If f ′(x) < 0 at every point sufficiently close to and f (c) is the local minima of f.
to the left of (c, f(c)) and f ′(x) > 0 at every point
‰ The test fails if f ′(c) = 0 and f ″(c) = 0
sufficiently close to and to the right of (c, f(c)), then
c, then c is a point of local minima.
‰ If f ′(x) does not change sign as ‛x’ increases through
c, then c is called the point of inflection.

Maxima and
Minima Critical Point: A point C in the domain
of ‛f ’ at which either f ′(c) = 0 or is not
differentiable is called a critical point
of f.

Increasing and APPLICATION OF

Decreasing Functions DERIVATIVES

Let I be an interval contained in the domain of a real valued function Rate of Change of
f. Then f is said to be Quantities
‰ increasing on I if x1 < x2 in I and f(x1) ≤ f(x2) or f′(x) ≥ 0 for all x1,
x2 ∈ I.
‰ strictly increasing on I, if x1 < x2 in I and f(x1) < f(x2) or f′(x) > 0
for all x1, x2 ∈ I. ‰ Whenever one quantity y varies with another
‰ constant on I, if f(x) = c for all x ∈ I, where c is a constant. dy
quantity x, satisfying some rule y = f(x), then
‰ decreasing on I if x1 < x2 in I and f (x1) ≥ f(x2) or f′(x) ≤ 0 for all dx
x1, x2 ∈ I. (or f ′ (x)) represents the rate of change of y with
‰ strictly decreasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f(x1 ) > f(x2) or f′(x) < 0 for
respect to x.
all x1, x2 ∈ I.
Y Y Y
dy 
‰ (or f ′(x0)) represents the rate of change of
dx  x = x0
y with respect to x at x = x0.
X' O X X' X X' O X ‰ If two variables x and y are varying with respect to
O
Y' Y' Y'
another variable t, i.e., if x = f(t) and y = g(t), then
Strictly Increasing Strictly Decreasing Neither Increasing dy dy dx dx
by Chain Rule = , if ≠0
function function nor Decreasing dx dt dt dt
function
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INTEGRALS Scan This QR Code

The process of finding the antiderivative is First fundamental theorem of integral calculus: b b
called integration. Integration is the inverse Let f be a continuous function on the closed ∫ f ( x)dx = ∫ f (t )dt
process of differentiation. interval [a, b] and let A (x) be the area function. a a
If g ′(x)
= f (x)=
then ∫ f (x)dx g (x) Then A′(x) = f (x), for all x ∈ [a, b]. b a

Second fundamental theorem of integral calculus ∫ f ( x)dx = −∫ f ( x)dx

i.e. ∫ f (x)dx = g(x) iff g′(x) = f (x) Let f be continuous function defined on the closed a b
b b
interval [a, b] and F be
∫ f (x)dx = g(x) + c as (g(x) + c)′ = f (x) an anti derivative of f. Then ∫ f ( x)dx
= ∫ f (a + b − x)dx
a a
Here ‘c’ is called constant of integration b
∫ f ( x=
)dx [ F (=
x)] F (b) − F (a)
b
a a
a
a 2

∫ f ( x)dx= ∫ [ f ( x) + f (a − x) ]dx
0 0

The given integral ∫ f(x) dx can be  a

transformed into another form Definition
Some a 2∫ f ( x)dx, if f ( x)is even .
 i.e. f ( − x)= f ( x)
by changing the independent Fundamental Properties ∫ f ( x)dx =  0
variable x to t by substituting Theorem −a  0, If f ( x) is odd.
of Definite 
of Integral i.e. f ( − x) = − f ( x)
x = g (t) Integrals
Calculus
∫ cot x dx loge | sin x | + c
=
Integration If u and v are any two differentiable functions of a
∫ tan x dx =
− log | cos x | + c
e by single variable x (say). Then, by the product rule of
Substitution Integration differentiation, we have
by Parts  du 
∫=
uv dx u ∫ vdx − ∫  ∫ vdx dx
 dx 
x n+1 Fundamental
x dx
∫=
n
+c (n ≠ –1) followed by ILATE rule
n +1 Integrals INTEGRALS
(ax + b)n+1
∫ (ax + b) =
dx n
+c 
a ( n + 1) dx 1 x
∫= 2
x +a 2
a
tan −1 + C
a
(n ≠ –1, a ≠ 0)
f ′ ( x) Method of Partial Integral of Some dx 1 x−a
=
∫
f ( x)
dx loge | f ( x) | + c Fractions for Particular Type of ∫ x 2 − a 2 2a log x + a + C
=
Rational Functions Function
1 dx 1 a+x
∫ dx loge | x | + c   (x ≠ 0)
=
x
∫ a 2 − x 2 2a log a − x + C
=

− cos x + c ,
∫ sin x dx = dx x
px + q A B
∫ = sin −1 + C
a2 − x2 a
∫ cos =
x dx sin x + c = + , a, b ≠ 0
( x − a)( x − b) x − a x − b
dx
∫ sec =
x dx 2
tan x + c px + q A B ∫ x2 + a2
= log x + x 2 + a 2 + C
= +
( x − a)2 x − a ( x − a)2
∫ cosec x dx =
2
− cot x + c dx
px 2 + qx + x A B C ∫ x2 − a2
= log x + x 2 − a 2 + C
= + +
∫ sec x tan =
x dx sec x + c ( x − a ) 2 ( x − b) x − a ( x − a ) 2 x − b
x 2 a2 x
∫ cosec x cot x dx =
− cosec x + c px 2 + qx + r
=
A
+
Bx + C ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx
=
2
a − x 2 + sin −1 + C
2 a
( x − a)( x 2 + bx + c) x − a x 2 + bx + c
1  x x 2 a2
∫ =
a2 − x2
dx sin −1   + c
 a A
d
(ax 2 + bx + c) ∫ x 2 + a 2 dx
=
2
x + a 2 + log | x + x 2 + a 2 | +C
2
px + q dx B
= + 2
1 1  x ax 2 + bx + c ax 2 + bx + c ax + bx + c x 2 a2
∫=
a2 + x2
dx
a
tan −1   + c
 a where, ax2 + bx + c cannot be factorised further.
∫ x 2 − a 2 dx
=
2
x − a 2 − log x + x 2 − a 2 + C
2
 CHAPTER-8 To Access One
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Application Scan This QR Code

of integrals

Definition:
The area A of the region between x-axis, ordinates x = a, x = b
The process of finding an area of some plane region is (b > a) and the curve y = f(x) is given by
called Quadrature. In this chapter we shall find the area Y
b b
bounded by some simple plane curves with the help of
definite integrals. For solving the problems on quadrature A = ∫ y dx = ∫ f(x)dx y = f(x)
easily, if possible first draw the rough sketch of the a a
y dx
required area.
O x=a x=b X

E.g.: Find the area bounded by y = x3, x-axis in Ist quadrant and the
lines x = 1 and x = 3.
2 2 3 3 3
Area of the ellipse x 2 + y2 =
1 is pab sq. units Sol:
= A ∫= ydx ∫ =x dx 20 sq. units
a b 1 1
Since the given equation contains only even
powers of x and only even powers of y, the curve
is symmetrical about the y-axis as well as x-axis.
Y Area Under Simple The area bounded by a cartesian curve x = f(y),
Curves y-axis and abscissa y = c and y = d
C (0,b)
Area under Ellipse

d d

A B(a, 0) =A ∫=
xdy ∫ f ( y) dy
O
X c c

D Y
APPLICATION
OF INTEGRALS y=d
\ Whole area of given ellipse x
x = f(y)
a ab dy
4 × ∫ y dx =
4(area of BCO) =
= 4∫ a − x dx 2 2
0 0 a
y=c
{Putting=x a sin θ} X
O
π / 2  1 + cos 2θ 
= 4ab∫   d θ ,
0 2
e.g.: Find the area bounded by x = y2, y-axis in Ist
π/2 π/2
= 2ab ∫ 1d θ + ∫ cos 2θ d θ quadrant and the lines y = 1 and y = 2.
0 0 
Area Under Circle 2
π/2 2 2  y3  7
  sin 2θ  
2ab {θ}0π / 2 + 
=  = πab sq. units.
Sol:
= A ∫ y dy
= =  sq. units
 3 1 3
1
  2  0 

Y
x2 + y2 = 1
We have x2 + y2 = 1, which is a circle having a centre at (0, 0) and radius ‘1’ unit.
⇒ y2 = 1 – x2 ⇒ = y 1 − x2
From the figure, area of the shaded region, X
1 1  12 π  O
2 2
= A 4=∫ ydx 4∫ 1 − x dx = 4 0 + 2 × 2 − 0 − 0 = p [Link]
0 0
 CHAPTER-9 To Access One
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DIFFERENTIAL Scan This QR Code

EQUATIONS

An equation containing an General Solution A first order-first degree differential

independent variable, a dependent The solution which contains a number of dy
variable and differential coefficients arbitrary constants equal to the order of equation is of the form = F ( x, y )
dx
of dependent variable with respect the equation is called a general solution

Definition
or primitive of a differential equation. If F(x, y) can be expressed as a
to independent variable is called a
product g(x) h(y), where, g(x) is a
differential equation.
Particular Solution function of x and h(y) is a function of
dy
e.g.: = sin x Solution obtained from the y, then the differential equation
dx dy
general solution by giving = F ( x, y ) is said to be of variable
particular values to the constants dx
are called particular solutions. separable type.
The order of a differential equation
is the order of the highest derivative e.g.: The solution of differential
occurring in the differential equation. equation xdy – ydx = 0 is
Differential

A solution of a differential equation is a

Equation
Order of

e.g.: The order of Sol: Given that,

function which satisfies the differential
xdy – ydx = 0 ⇒ xdy = ydx
d2y dy equation.
x 2 is 2.
− 5 + 5y = dy dx
dx 2 dx ⇒ =
y x
On integrating both sides, we get
The degree of a differential equation Solutions of a Differential log y = log x + log C
is the highest power of the highest Equation ⇒ log y = logCx
order derivative, when differential ⇒ y = Cx
Differential

coefficients are made free from

Degree of

Equation

radicals and fractions.

dy DIFFERENTIAL
e.g.: The degree of + xy = cot x EQUATIONS
dx Variable Separable
is 1.
Method

dy f ( x, y ) A differential equation of the form

A differential equation of the form = is said to be a
dx g ( x, y ) dy
+ Py = Q
homogeneous differential equation if f(x, y) and g(x, y) are dx
Differential

homogeneous functions of the same degree n. where, P and Q are the function of x, is known as a
Equation
Linear

And, F(x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n if f(λx, λy) first order linear differential equation. It’s solution
= λn f(x, y), where λ is any constant.
dy f ( x, y )
is given by, y × I .F=
. ∫ (Q( x) ⋅ I .F .)dx + c where,
To solve a homogeneous differential equation =
dx g ( x, y ) I.F. (Integrating Factor) = e∫
P ( x ).dx

dy dv
Working rule, take y =vx ⇒ =v + x
dx dx e.g.: Find the solution of differential equation
dy
e.g.: Show that the differential equation (x – y) = x + 2y is dy
homogeneous. dx x = y + x 2 is
dx
Sol: The given differential equation can be expressed as
Homogeneous Differential

dy x + 2 y Sol:
= ...(i) dy y
dx x− y − =x
dx x
Equations

x + 2y
Let F ( x, y ) = 1
x− y ∫ − x dx 1
I.F. = e∫= e=
P ( x ).dx

x
λ( x + 2 y)
Now F (λx, λy ) = = λ° F ( x, y ) 1 1
λ( x − y) \ Solution is, y ⋅ =
x ∫ x ⋅ dx + c
x
Therefore, F(x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree zero.
So, the given differential equation is a homogeneous differential y 2
⇒ =x + c ⇒ y = x + cx
equation. x
CHAPTER-10 To Access One
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Vector Algebra Scan This QR Code


‰ Null Vector or Zero Vector: If the initial and terminal points of a vector coincide, then it is called a zero vector. It is denoted by 0 or O. Its magnitude is
zero and direction indeterminate. 
‰ Unit Vector: A vector whose magnitude is of unit length along any vector a is called a unit vector in the direction of a and is denoted by â ⇒ aˆ = a
 
‰ Equal Vector: Two non-zero vectors are said to be equal vectors if their magnitude is equal and directions are the same. | a |
‰ Collinear Vector: Two or more non-zero vectors are said to be collinear vectors if these are parallel to the same line.
‰ Like and Unlike Vector: Collinear vectors having the same direction are known as like vectors, while those having opposite directions are known as,
unlike vectors.
‰ Coplanar Vector: Two or more non-zero vectors are said to be coplanar vectors if these are parallel to the same plane.
‰ Localised Vector and Free Vector: A vector drawn parallel to a given vector through a specified point as the initial point, is known as a localised vector. If
the initial point of a vector is not specified, it is said to be a free vector.
 
‰ Negative of a Vector: Let AB be a vector directed from A to B. then − AB is a vector which would be directed from B to A.

Types of Vector Position Vector

Vector or cross product:
 
If a and b are two vectors and θ is the angle between
    Let O be the origin and A be a point such that
them, then= a × b a b sin θ nˆ , where n̂ is the unit 
 
OA = a, then we say that the position vector
 

vector perpendicular to both a and b such that of A is a.
 
a, b and nˆ forms a right handed screw system.
Product of two
Vectors

vector on a line

Projection of a If a and b are two vectors then

Scalar or Dot product:
   a.b

If a and b are two non-zero vectors and θ be the angle ∴ Projection of a on b = 
VECTOR b
between them, then their scalar product (or dot ALGEBRA
 
is a ⋅ b a | b cos θ, where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
product) =

Vector joining two points

If the position vectors of the points A and B be
  Let A (x1, y1, z1) and B (x2, y2, z2) be the two points.
a and b then, the position vectors of the points Joining the points A and B with respect to the
Formula
Section

dividing the line AB in the ratio m : n internally origin O.

  
  ∴ AB = ( x 2 − x1 )2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2 + ( z 2 − z1 ) 2
and externally are mb + na and mb - na ,
m+n m- n
respectively.

Properties of Direction ratios and direction

 
Components of

Let a vector OP =a = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ , Here x, Vector Addition cosines of a vector.
a Vector

y and z are called scalar components and


xiˆ, yjˆ and zkˆ are called vector components If a = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ then x, y, z are called direction

of a along the axes. ratio and l, m and n are called direction cosines
 
If a and b are two vectors where,
   
‰ a + b = b + a (commutative) x
  l cos =
= α ,
‰ (a + b ) + c = a + (b + c) x2 + y 2 + z 2
Multiplication of a


Vector by Scalar


If a and b are vectors & m, n are scalars, then (associative) y
   = cos=
m β ,
‰ m (a ) = (a ) m = ma      x2 + y 2 + z 2
‰ a +0 = a = 0+a
  
‰ m (na ) = n (ma ) = (mn ) a      z
‰ a + (- a ) = 0 = (- a ) + a n cos =
= γ
  
‰ (m + n) a = ma + na   
‰ |a +b |≤|a|+|b |

x2 + y 2 + z 2
(  
)  
‰ m a + b = ma + mb    
‰ | a − b | ≥ || a | − |b ||
 CHAPTER-11 To Access One
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Three Dimensional Scan This QR Code

Geometry

Distance between two skew Cartesian form: Distance between parallel lines:
lines: The shortest distance between the lines If two lines l1 and l2 are parallel, then they are
Let l1 and l2 be two skew lines x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 coplanar. Let the lines be given by
l1 : = =   
with equations a1 b1 c1 r= a1 + λb
  
r= a1 + λb1   
 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2 and r= a2 + µb
  and l2 : = =
and r= a2 + µb2 a2 b2 c2 The distance between the given parallel lines is
∴ Required shortest distance is   
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 b × (a2 − a1 )
    d= 
(b × b ).(a − a ) a1 b1 c1 b
d = 1 2 2 1
b1 × b2 a2 b2 c2
d=
(b1c2 − b2c1 )2 + (c1a2 − c2 a1 )2 + (a1b2 − a2b1 )2

Shortest Distance Direction ratios: Let a, b, c be

Between Two Lines proportional to the direction cosines
l, m, n then a, b, c are called the
direction ratios.
Let q be the acute angle between two
Angle Between Two Lines

If the coordinates P and Q are (x1, y1, z1)

vectors then Direction Cosines and and (x2, y2, z2) then the direction ratios
Direction Ratios of line PQ are, a = x2 – x1, b = y2 – y1
a1a2  b1b2  c1c2
cos   . THREE & c = z2 – z1
a12  b12  c12 a22  b22  c22 DIMENSIONAL
  GEOMETRY
b ⋅b
or cosq = 1 2
b1 b2

 wo lines will be perpendicular if

T
 
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0, or b1 ⋅ b2 =
0
  Equation of a Line
a1 b1 c1 Direction cosines: Let a, b, g be
parallel if = = or b1 = λb2
a2 b2 c2 angles which a directed line makes
with the positive directions of the
axes of x, y and z respectively, then
cos a, cos b, cos g are called the
direction cosines of the line. The
Cartesian Equation of a line: direction cosines are usually denoted
Let the coordinates of the given point A be by (l, m, n).
(x1, y1, z1) and the direction ratios of the line Thus l = cos a, m = cos b, n = cos g.
be a, b, c. Consider the coordinates of any If l, m, n be the direction cosines and
point P be (x, y, z). Then a, b, c be the direction ratios of a
  vector, then
r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ; A = x1iˆ + y1 ˆj + z1kˆ a b
Vector Equation of a line:   ,m   ,
Let l be the line which passes through the point and B = aiˆ + bjˆ + ckˆ a 2  b2  c2 a 2  b2  c2
  c
A and is parallel to a given vector b . Let r be x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 n
the position vector of an arbitrary point P on Then = = a 2  b2  c2
 a b c
  If l, m, n be the direction cosines of a
the line, then Vector equation is r = a + λb This is the Cartesian equation of the line. line, then l2 + m2 + n2 = 1.
 CHAPTER-12 To Access One
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Linear Programming Scan This QR Code

‰ Constraints: The linear inequalities or inequations or restrictions on the variables of a linear programming problem are called constraints. The
conditions x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 are called non-negative restrictions.
‰ Optimisation Problem: A problem which seeks to maximise or minimise a linear function subject to certain constraints determined by a set of linear
inequalities is called an optimisation problem. Linear programming problems are a special type of optimisation problem.
‰ Objective Functions: A linear function of two or more variables which has to be maximised or minimised under the given restrictions in the form
of linear inequations (or linear constraints) is called an objective function. The variables used in the objective function are called decision variables.
‰ Optimal Values: The maximum or minimum value of an objective function is known as its optimal values.
‰ Feasible Solution: Any solution to the given linear programming problem which also satisfies the non-negative restrictions of the problem is called a
feasible solution. Any point outside the feasible region is called an infeasible solution.
‰ Feasible Region: The common region determined by all the constraints including non-negative constraints x, y ≥ 0 of a linear programming problem
is called the feasible region on solution region. End point in this region represents a feasible choice. The region other than a feasible region is called
an infeasible region.
‰ Bounded Region: A feasible region of a system of linear inequations is said to be bounded if it can be enclosed within a circle. Otherwise, it is said to
be an unbounded region and an unbounded region means the feasible region extends indefinitely in all directions.
‰ Optimal Solution: A feasible solution at which the objective function has optimal value is called the optimal solution of the LPP.
‰ Optimisation Technique: The process of obtaining the optimal solution is called the optimisation technique.

Theorem 1 Some Terms Related to

L.P.P. The general form of L.P.P. is Optimise
Let R be the feasible region (convex polygon) (Maximise or Minimise)
for a linear programming problem and let Z = c1x1 + c2 x2 + ......+ cnxn
Z = ax + by be the objective function. General Form Subject to constraints
When Z has an optimal value (maximum or of L.P.P. a11x1 + a12 x2 + ....... + an xn ( ≤, =, ≥ ) b1
minimum), where the variables x and y are
subject to constraints described by linear    
Fundamental Theorem

LINEAR
inequalities, this optimal value must occur at am1x1 + am2x2 + ........amnxm (≥, =, ≤) bm
PROGRAMMING
a corner point (vertex) of the feasible region. x1, x2,........xn ≥ 0
for L.P.P

Theorem 2
Let R be the feasible region for a linear
Corner Point

programming problem, and let Z = ax + by be

To solve L.P.P. the Corner Point method is used.
Method

the objective function. If R is bounded, then

the objective function Z has both a maximum It is a graphical method to solve the L.P.P.
and a minimum value on R and each of these The following steps are given below.
occurs at a corner point (vertex) of R. Step (1) Find the feasible region of the L.P.P. and determine
If R is unbounded, then a maximum or a its corner points (vertices) either by inspection or by solving
minimum value of the objective function may Mathematical the two equations of the lines intersecting at that point.
not exist. However, if it exists, it must occur Formulation of a Step (2) Evaluate the objective function Z = ax + by at each
at a corner point of R. L.P.P corner point. Let M and m, respectively denote the largest
and smallest values of these points.
There are mainly four steps in the mathematical formulation of linear programming (i) When the feasible region is bounded, M and m are the
problems as a mathematical model. We will discuss formulation of those problems maximum and minimum values of Z.
which involve only two variables. (ii) In case, the feasible region is unbounded, we have:
‰ Identify the decision variables and assign symbols x and y to them. These decision (a) M is the maximum value of Z, if the open half
variables are those quantities whose values we wish to determine. plane determined by ax + by > M has no point in
‰ Identify the set of constraints and express them as linear equations/inequations in common with the feasible region. Otherwise, Z
terms of the decision variables. These constraints are the given conditions. has no maximum value.
‰ Identify the objective function and express it as a linear function of decision variables. (b) Similarly, m is the minimum value of Z, if the
It might take the form of maximising profit or production or minimising cost. open half plane determined by ax + by < M

‰ Add the non-negativity restrictions on the decision variables, as in the physical has no point in common with the feasible region.
problems, negative values of decision variables have no valid interpretation. Otherwise, Z has no minimum value.
CHAPTER-13 To Access One
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Probability Scan This QR Code

Sample space: A set S that consists of all possible Experiment: An action Let an event A occurs with one of the n mutually exclusive
outcomes of a random experiment is called a sample or operation resulting in and exhaustive events B1, B2, B3,...... Bn
space and each outcome is called a sample point two or more outcomes, Then A = AB1 + AB2 + AB3 +................+ABn
often there will be more than one sample space which are unpredictable in P(A) = P(AB1) + P(AB2) +................ + P(ABn)
that can describe outcomes of an experiment, but advance.
n
there is usually only one that will provide the most e.g.:
information. If a sample space has a finite number (i) Tossing of a coin
= ∑ P( ABi )
i =1
of points it is called finite sample space and infinite (ii) Throwing a dice
sample space if it has an infinite number of points.  A  A  A
(iii) Drawing a card P( A) P( B1 ) P   + P( B2 ) P   + .... + P( Bn ) P  
=
e.g.:  B1   B2   Bn 
(i) In the toss of a coin, S = {H, T} where H and T
are sample points representing a head and a tail n  A
respectively. = ∑ P( Bi ) P  B 
i =1  i 
(ii) In the throw of a die, S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} where
the numbers are the sample points representing
the six faces.
Experiment

Total Probability Theorem

Sample Space

A subset of sample space, i.e. a set If A and B are two events associated with
Multiplication

of some of possible outcomes of a a random experiment, then

PROBABILITY
Theorem

random experiment is called as an P(A ∩ B) = P(A)⋅ P  B  ,

Events

event.  A
e.g.: Getting a six on the throw of
A
a dice if P(A)≠0 or P(A ∩ B) = P(B). P   , if
P(B) ≠ 0 B

Baye's Theorem

Independent Events
Conditional Probability

If an event A can occur only with

one of the n mutually exclusive and
exhaustive events B1. B2,......Bn and If A and B are independent events associated with a
the probabilities random experiment, then P(A∩B) = P(A)⋅ P(B) Let A and B be two events such that P(A) > 0.
Then P(B|A) denote the conditional probability of
 A  A  A i.e. the probability of simultaneous occurrence of
P   , P   ............... P   B given that A has occurred. Since A is known to
B 
1 B 2 B n two independent events are equal to the product of have occurred, it becomes the new sample space
their probabilities. By multiplication theorem, replacing the original S. From this we led to the
are known then
we have P( A ∩ B) =  B definition.
 A P( A).P  
P( Bi ).P    A
B   Bi   B  P( A ∩ B)
P i  = . P  =
 A n  A P( A)
 A
∑ P( Bi ).P  B  which is called conditional probability of B given
i =1 i
A.