Standard Practice for

Assessment of Corrosion of Steel

Piling for Non-Marine Applications

AASHTO Designation: R 27-01 (2019)

Technical Subcommittee: 1a, Soil and Unbound
Recycled Materials
Release: Group 3 (July)

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

444 North Capitol Street N.W., Suite 249
Washington, D.C. 20001
2.2. ASTM Standards:
 D512, Standard Test Methods for Chloride Ion in Water
 D516, Standard Test Method for Sulfate Ion in Water
 D1452/1452M, Standard Practice for Soil Exploration and Sampling by Auger Borings
 D2487, Standard Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil
Classification System)
 D2488, Standard Practice for Description and Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual
Procedure)
 D4220/4220M, Standard Practices for Preserving and Transporting Soil Samples
 D4972, Standard Test Method for pH of Soils
 G51, Standard Test Method for Measuring pH of Soil for Use in Corrosion Testing
 G57, Standard Test Method for Field Measurement of Soil Resistivity Using the Wenner
Four-Electrode Method

3. SIGNIFICANCE AND USE

3.1. This standard practice identifies the factors that cause corrosion of steel piles subjected to
subsurface, non-marine environment in underground conditions. It provides procedures to assess
the corrosion potential of the piles and offers recommendations on the ways to mitigate the
corrosion. By determining the existing condition, the remaining life of the piles can be predicted.

PART I—ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS CAUSING CORROSION

OF STEEL PILING

4. MECHANISM OF UNDERGROUND CORROSION

4.1. Corrosion of structural steel in soils is electrochemical in nature. When steel corrodes, the iron
atoms in the steel undergo oxidation and lose electrons (Equation 1). Other components in the soil
are reduced and gain the lost electrons (some combination of Equations 2, 3, and 4). The
electrochemical reaction associated with oxidation is the anodic reaction and the electrochemical
reaction associated with reduction is the cathodic reaction. The sites where the anodic and
cathodic reactions take place are termed the anode and cathode, respectively. The combination of
the anode and the cathode, coupled with current flow between the two, is called a corrosion cell.

4.2. Figure 1 is a schematic of a corrosion cell. As shown in Figure 1, the electrons produced by the
oxidation reaction flow from the anode to the cathode in the steel where they are consumed by the
reduction reaction. Note that the direction of current flow is opposite to the direction of electron
flow since, by definition, current is the flow of positive charge. In the soil, current must flow from
the anode to the cathode to maintain charge neutrality. Current flow in the soil is carried by ions,
moving through the water in pore spaces between the soil particles.

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 Anodic Reaction Anode
Fe → Fe+++ + 3e¯

Steel

Soil Current
Flow
in Current
Soil Flow
Electron in Metal
Flow

Cathode
Cathodic Reaction
O 2 + H2 O + 4e¯ → 4OH¯

Figure 1—Schematic of a Corrosion Cell

4.3. Oxygen reduction (Equation 2) usually controls the rate of corrosion of steel in soils. This reaction
is, in turn, controlled by the rate of movement of oxygen through the soil and water to the steel
surface. In the absence of oxygen, reduction of water (Equation 3) can occur. However, this is
normally slow enough to cause no significant corrosion damage to steel. Hydrogen ion reduction
(Equation 4) occurs when the soil is very acidic and can significantly contribute to the rate of
corrosion of steel in such soils. The iron ions produced by oxidation of the steel can eventually
react with components in the soil to form corrosion products. For example, Equation 5 shows the
iron ions reacting with water to produce rust. Other corrosion-related products are formed on the
surface of the metal by the reduction reactions. These products include hydroxide ions
(Equations 2 and 3) and hydrogen gas (Equations 3 and 4).

4.3.1. Oxidation of Iron:

Fe → Fe+++ + 3e– (1)

4.3.2. Oxygen Reduction:

O2 + 2H2O + 4e– → 4OH– (2)

4.3.3. Water Reduction:

2H2O + 2e– → H2 + 2OH– (3)

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4.3.4. Hydrogen Ion Reduction:
2H+ + 2e– → H2 (4)

4.3.5. Formation of Rust:

2Fe+++ + 3H2O → Fe2O3 + 6H+ (5)

4.4. If the anodes and cathodes are very close to each other and evenly distributed on the steel surface,
uniform corrosion of the steel occurs. On most underground steel structures, rates of uniform
corrosion are low and rarely cause service failures. The most notable exception is where the soil
pH is below 4.

4.5. Where the anode and cathode sites are well separated on a steel surface, a “macrocell” is formed.
Severe corrosion and resulting service failures can occur when the anode in a macrocell is
confined to a relatively small area of the steel. In this instance, the form of corrosion is frequently
referred to as pitting. Once macrocells are started on a steel surface, the products of the
electrochemical reactions generally cause the macrocell to continue. For example, the reduction
reactions cause an increase in the pH at the cathode. Steels form protective films in elevated pH
environments, reducing the rate of corrosion. On the other hand, the reactions at the anode reduce
the pH. The acidic environment created at the anode causes protective oxide films on the steel to
break down, increasing the corrosion rate. As the pH at the anode decreases, the reduction of
hydrogen ions may occur locally, further increasing the rate of attack.

4.6. One of the common macrocells on piling in soils is caused by variation in oxygen concentration
over the steel surface. Oxygen macrocells frequently develop in stratified soils. Anodes are formed
where the oxygen concentration is low, such as in clay soils, and cathodes are formed where the
oxygen concentration is high, such as in sandy soils. The water table is another area where oxygen
macrocells usually develop. A macrocell also may develop where there is variation in the chloride
content of the soil, such as along roads with saltwater runoff. In this macrocell, anodes form in
regions of high chloride concentration.

4.7. Other factors that affect the rate of oxygen macrocell corrosion include the relative surface area of
the anode and the cathode, soil resistivity, and microbiological activity. Where the cathode is large
and the anode is small, a large current is concentrated at the anode, leading to high rates of
corrosion at the anode. Soil corrosivity generally increases with decreasing soil resistivity. Where
the soil resistance is high, a high current flow between the anode and cathode cannot occur due to
the high voltage (IR) drop in the high resistance soil path. Microbiological activity, or the presence
of welds or inclusions in the steel, can also aggravate macrocell corrosion by aiding in the creation
of the anodic sites. Further discussion of the effects of resistivity and other parameters on
corrosion is given in the NCHRP Report 408.

4.8. Piling and other underground structures also can undergo accelerated corrosion as a result of stray
current flow in the soil. Sources of stray current include cathodic protection systems for other
structures, direct current (DC) electric transit systems, mining activity, and high voltage DC
electric power lines. DC electric current, flowing parallel to a structure, will jump onto that
structure if that structure has a lower resistance in the direction of the current flow than the soil.
The structure is cathodically protected where the current jumps onto the structure and corrosion is
accelerated where the current leaves the structure. Stray current corrosion is most commonly
observed on structures that have large dimensions in one horizontal direction, such as pipelines.
Sheet piling and other piling that are electrically continuous also can experience stray
current corrosion.

4.9. To summarize, corrosion of structural steel in soils is electrochemical in nature and is caused by
the presence of oxygen and moisture in the soil. Corrosion is most likely to occur at or above the
water table in disturbed stratified soils having low resistivity. For example, fill soils containing
man-made materials such as cinders, slag, or ash are known to cause significant corrosion of steel

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 piles. Stray electrical currents flowing in the ground, from sources such as transit systems, also
can contribute to corrosion of structural steels in soils.

PART II—CORROSION CONSIDERATIONS FOR NEW AND

EXISTING PILING

5. SUMMARY OF APPROACH
5.1. A preliminary investigation (Phase I Site Assessment) is performed to obtain pertinent available
information on the surface and subsurface conditions at the site. Information obtained in this
investigation may include the position of the piling or pile cap with respect to the groundwater
table, the soil characteristics, and the presence of contaminants in the soil. This information is
used to determine whether a further (Phase II) assessment is required. In general, a Phase II Site
Investigation is required unless:

5.1.1. The piling or pile cap is or will be below the water table at all times or,

5.1.2. The Phase I Site Assessment provides the necessary information outlined in the Phase II Site
Investigation to establish the corrosivity of the site.

5.1.3. In cases where there are multiple sites that require investigation, priority should be given to those
sites known to contain corrosive materials such as slag, cinders, ash, or other man-made products.

5.2. In the Phase II Site Investigation, continuous soil sampling is performed to a depth of 1 m below
the minimum water table. The testing protocol outlined in Figure 2 is used for analyzing the soil
samples. For homogeneous soils, testing is performed every 60 to 90 cm, while testing is
performed on each distinct soil layer for inhomogeneous soils. This testing is limited to resistivity,
pH, and particle size.

5.3. The flowchart shown in Figure 3 is used, in conjunction with the results of the soil analyses, to
determine the likelihood of significant uniform or macrocell corrosion. As shown in the figure,
neither form of corrosion is likely to occur at a significant rate if the saturated soil resistivity is
greater than approximately 2000 Ω-cm. Depending on the homogeneity, particle size, and pH of
the soil, one or both forms of corrosion may occur at a significant rate if the saturated soil
resistivity is below 2000 Ω-cm.

5.4. The need for corrosion monitoring, corrosion mitigation, or pile repair or replacement is
determined using the flowchart shown in Figure 4. No further testing or analysis is required if the
results of the soil analyses indicate there is a low probability of significant uniform or macrocell
corrosion. Corrosion monitoring is recommended where one or both forms of corrosion may occur
at a significant rate. This corrosion monitoring will establish the rate of corrosion such that a
remaining life assessment can be performed. Corrosion mitigation is recommended if the predicted
remaining life is less than the design life. Corrosion mitigation is recommended in cases where
corrosive soils are present and there is insufficient time for proper corrosion monitoring. Pile
repair or replacement is required if there is no predicted remaining life. If the predicted remaining
life is much less than the design life, the pile should be excavated and examined to better define
the existing condition and the need for repair, replacement, or corrosion mitigation.

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 Phase I Assessment

Below Water Table

at All Times No Testing
Pile/Pile Cap Location
Required

At or above Water Table

Continuous Soil Sampling:

Surface to 1 m below
Water Table

Visual Examination, Identification, and

Thickness of Soil Layers

No Yes
Homogeneity

Test Each Distinct Test Soil Every

Soil Layer 60 to 90 cm

Medium- to
Fine-Grained Course-Grained
Texture

pH, ASTM Method G51 As-Received Resistivity

ASTM Method G57

As-Received Resistivity
ASTM Method G57
Send to Laboratory

Send to Laboratory

pH, ASTM Method D4972

Saturated Resistivity
ASTM Method G57

Sieve Analysis/Particle
Size Distribution

Evaluate Test Results

Figure 2—Phase II Site Sampling and Testing Protocol

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 Phase II Assessment

Greater than
2000 Ω-cm Low Possibility of
Saturated
Uniform or Macrocell
Soil Resistivity
Corrosion

Less than
2000 Ω-cm

Yes No
Homogeneity

Medium to Medium to
Coarse Grain Grain Coarse
Size Size

Fine Fine
Possibility of
Severe Macrocell Low Possibility Possibility of
Corrosion at of Macrocell Severe Macrocell Possibility of
the Water Table Corrosion Corrosion in Severe Macrocell
Strata and at Corrosion at
the Water Table the Water Table

Less than 4 Greater than 4

pH

Possibility of Low Possibility

Severe Uniform of Uniform
Corrosion Corrosion

Figure 3—Determination of the Possibility for General and/or Macrocell Corrosion Based on Soil Analysis

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Figure 4—Determination of the Necessity for Electrochemical Testing, Corrosion Monitoring, and Mitigation

6. PHASE I (PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT)

6.1. The purpose of the Phase I Site Assessment is to obtain pertinent available information on the
surface and subsurface conditions to aid in the assessment of soil corrosivity. Information may be
available on (1) the position of the pile or pile cap in relation to the groundwater table, (2) the
presence of environmental contaminants, (3) the characteristics of the soil and rock at the site, and
(4) the location, fluctuation, and chemistry of the groundwater.

6.2. Possible sources of relevant information for the Phase I Assessment include (1) local and U.S.
Geological Survey, (2) USDA Soil Conservation Service, and (3) U.S. and state DOTs.

6.3. All data gathered from the Phase I Assessment should be forwarded to the engineer in charge of
the project. These data should be used to determine if a Phase II Site Investigation is required. A
Phase II Site Investigation is required unless:

6.3.1. The piling or pile cap is or will be below the water table at all times or,

6.3.2. The Phase I Site Assessment provides the necessary information outlined in the Phase II Site
Investigation to establish the corrosivity of the site.

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6.3.3. In cases where there are multiple sites that require investigation, priority should be given to those
sites known to contain corrosive materials such as slag, cinders, ash, or other man-made products.

7. PHASE II (SITE INVESTIGATION)

7.1. The purpose of the Phase II Site Investigation is to obtain information on soil properties to assess
the potential for corrosion of buried steel piles at the site. Figure 2 shows the site sampling and
testing protocol.

7.2. Soil Collection:

7.2.1. The following quantities of soil are suggested as the minimum sample size suitable for most
materials:

Table 1—Minimum Sample Sizes

Test Total Size –4.75 mm
Particle Size 50 to 500 g —
pH 100 g 40 g
Resistivity 2000 g 1800 g

7.2.2. A soil sample with minimal disturbance is preferred for the corrosivity assessment. The following
test methods are applicable: T 206, T 207, and T 255.

[Link]. Continuous samples are preferred, if possible.

[Link]. A 7.6-cm (3-in.) split spoon is an excellent sampling technique in that it provides an undisturbed,
continuous sample of sufficient quantity for the required analyses.

[Link]. Air is the preferred drilling fluid if drilling fluids must be used.

[Link]. If thin-walled tubes are used and the sample is contained for more than 72 h, the coating in the
tube should NOT be oil or any other material that may contaminate the soil sample.

7.2.3. Disturbed samples may be obtained by hand auger or test pit/excavation in the event that a
minimally disturbed sample cannot be obtained. Applicable methods include ASTM
D1452/1452M.

7.2.4. Representative samples should be collected, as indicated in Figure 2, to a depth of 1 m below the
water table.

7.2.5. Soil pH and resistivity measurements should be performed in the field (if possible) using
ASTM G51 and G57, respectively.

[Link]. For determination of pH of coarse-grained soils (gravels), where a stable reading cannot be
obtained with ASTM G51, ASTM D4972 should be performed in the laboratory. For comparison
with ASTM G51 data, the pH value should be reduced by 0.5 to 1.0 units.

7.3. Soil Handling:

7.3.1. Preserving and Transporting—The intent, precautions, and procedures of ASTM D4220/4220M
(Group B) are applicable to this practice. Soil samples should be handled in such a way as to
preserve moisture and maintain the orientation and integrity of the soil sample. All samples should
be placed in sealed glass jars as soon as possible to preserve natural moisture and exclude oxygen.

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 The jars should be clearly labeled as to location, depth, and method of sampling. Ship samples to
the laboratory within 1 to 2 days.

7.4. Laboratory Soil Testing:

7.4.1. Sample Reduction—Sample reduction procedures, if necessary, should not be performed until
visual observation is made to describe the soil, thickness, and relationship of the various soil
layers. Resistivity and pH should always be determined on the as-received sample prior to sample
reduction if not previously determined in the field.

7.4.2. Description and Identification:

[Link]. Soil samples should be visually examined in the as-received condition to determine
uniformity/homogeneity and particle size.

[Link]. A log of the various soil layers should be recorded and include description, identification, and
thickness measurements of the soil layers.

[Link]. Applicable methods include ASTM D2488 and D2487. The Unified Soil Classification System
(USCS) should be used to classify soil.

[Link]. For nonhomogeneous soils, laboratory analyses should be performed on portions of each distinct
layer from the surface to a depth of 1 m below the water table.

[Link]. For homogeneous soils, laboratory analyses should be performed on samples from approximately
60- to 90-cm intervals.

7.4.3. Resistivity:

[Link]. The ASTM G57, Wenner Four-Pin technique, should be used for all soil resistivity measurements.

[Link]. Resistivity measurement should be made using soil finer than 4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve in the as-
received condition prior to performing any other soil testing while the natural moisture is still
present. Resistivity should also be performed on saturated soil.

[Link]. For saturated measurements, place soil in a glass or plastic jar and saturate with distilled or
deionized water. Mix thoroughly, cover, and let sit overnight (at least 14 h) prior to measurement.

7.4.4. pH—Soil pH measurements should be performed in the laboratory using ASTM G51 if
not previously determined in the field. ASTM D4972 should be used for primarily coarse-
grained soils.

7.4.5. Sulfate:

[Link]. The ASTM D516 procedure is applicable.

[Link]. The sulfate calibration curve described in ASTM D516 may be expanded to accommodate
samples whose sulfate concentration is greater than 40 mg/L.

7.4.6. Chloride:

[Link]. The chloride concentration shall be determined by either the Mohr method (silver nitrate titration)
or by an ion selective electrode. The ASTM D512 procedure is applicable.

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[Link]. If the Mohr method is used, the pH of the sample (or diluted sample) must be in the range of 6.0 to
8.5. Dilute sulfuric acid or sodium hydroxide may be used to adjust the pH.

[Link]. See T 291 for a list of ions known to interfere with the analysis of chloride.

8. REPORT
8.1. Report the following information:

8.1.1. Date, time, depth, and method of sampling;

8.1.2. Sample identification—location and depth;

8.1.3. Position (depth) of the groundwater table;

8.1.4. Test methodology if several methods are applicable; and

8.1.5. All units in metric, followed by English units in parentheses.

9. TEST RESULTS DECISION MATRIX

9.1. All data gathered should be forwarded to the engineer in charge of the project for analysis.

9.2. The flowchart shown in Figure 3 is used to determine the possibility of uniform and or macrocell
corrosion based on the soil analysis.

9.3. The flowcharts cannot encompass all possibilities for corrosion of steel piling at a given site.
Other factors that may contribute to corrosivity at a given site include the presence of chemical
contamination, stray DC currents in the soil, and the presence of high concentrations of microbes.

9.3.1. A qualified corrosion specialist should be consulted where it is suspected that these or other
unusual conditions that could contribute to corrosion of structural steel piling are present.

9.3.2. Sulfate-reducing bacteria are more likely to be present where high sulfate levels are detected.

9.4. The guidelines provided in the flowcharts are not meant to supersede any local, state, or
federal requirements.

10. CORROSION PROBES

10.1. The flowchart shown in Figure 4 is used to determine whether corrosion monitoring is required at
the site, based on the possibility of uniform and/or macrocell corrosion.

10.1.1. A corrosion probe that is capable of monitoring uniform corrosion (e.g., a polarization resistance
(PR) probe or a simple test pile) should be used at sites where soil data indicate a moderate-to-
high possibility for uniform corrosion.
Note 1—A test pile is a pile that is removed after a specified exposure period and examined for
loss of thickness.

10.1.2. A corrosion probe that is capable of monitoring macrocell corrosion (e.g., a galvanic current probe
or test pile) should be used at sites where soil data indicate a moderate-to-high possibility of
macrocell corrosion.

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10.1.3. A qualified corrosion specialist should be consulted to assist in probe selection and field corrosion
rate measurements.

10.2. Corrosion mitigation is recommended in cases where corrosive soils are present and there is
insufficient time for proper corrosion monitoring.

10.3. Install a probe through the most corrosive soil layers based on the soil analyses. The corrosion
probe should be installed in soil as near as possible to the steel pile for long-term corrosion
monitoring of new piling, if necessary.

10.3.1. The frequency of measurements and test duration should be established by the person(s)
conducting the tests on a site-specific basis.

10.3.2. Procedures for making galvanic current and PR measurements are given in Appendices M and N,
respectively, in the NCHRP Report 408.

10.4. Data gathered from the electrochemical measurements should be used to help assess the remaining
life of the steel piling, as described below.

11. ESTIMATION OF SERVICE LIFE

11.1. Remaining service life of piles can be estimated if three factors are known. These are: present
condition of the piles, rate of degradation of those piles, and the criterion used for the pile failures.

11.2. In establishing the existing condition of piles, two conditions apply:

11.2.1. For new piles, the existing condition is the installed condition.

11.2.2. For existing piles, the condition can be established by excavation and evaluation, or it can be
estimated based on the maximum corrosion rate measured electrochemically and the time the pile
has been in the ground.
Note 2—The estimated service life, based on the electrochemical measurements, is much less
than the design life.

11.3. Estimate rate of piling degradation by (1) direct measurement of dimensional loss of the pile (or
test pile) and the time the pile (or test pile) has been in the ground, or (2) the electrochemical
corrosion rate measurements.

11.4. Establish remaining service life based on criterion for pile failure.

11.4.1. Failure of steel piling, from a corrosion standpoint, is an average loss equal to 50 percent of the
original cross-sectional area.

11.4.2. When using the corrosion rate measurements to calculate sectional loss of an H or sheet pile, be
sure to consider metal loss from all sides of the pile.

11.4.3. The section-loss criteria should be used in addition to existing federal, state, and local criteria to
determine pile failure.

11.5. The flowchart in Figure 4 shows how the results of the remaining life calculation are used to make
decisions with regard to repair, replacement, the application of mitigation techniques, or continued
corrosion monitoring of a pile.

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11.6. Procedures for excavation and exposure of piling and further details on methods of estimating
service life of unprotected bare steel piling are given in Appendix S of the NCHRP Report 408.

12. APPLICATION OF CORROSION MITIGATION

12.1. As shown in Figure 4, corrosion mitigation is recommended where the estimated remaining life is
less than the design life.

12.1.1. Possible choices for corrosion mitigation of new piling include the following: cathodic protection,
coatings, encasement of pile, remove/replace corrosive fill, alter pile design (for example, a
thicker cross section), or alternative material of construction for the pile.

12.1.2. Possible choices for corrosion mitigation of existing piling include cathodic protection or
remove/replace corrosive fill.

13. KEYWORDS
13.1. Corrosion; corrosion probes; direct current; electrochemical reaction; macrocell; microbiological
activity; remaining life; soil resistivity; steel piling.

14. REFERENCE
14.1. Beavers, J. A., and C. L. Durr. National Cooperative Highway Research Report 408: Corrosion of
Steel Piling in Non-Marine Applications. CC Technologies, Columbus, OH, for the National
Cooperative Highway Research Program Project 10-46, TRB, National Research Council,
Washington, DC, May 1997.

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