UNIT- 3

Challenges Facing Tangible and Intangible Heritage: Conservation Initiatives,

Development, Antiquity Smuggling, Conflict (To Be Examined Through Specific Case
Studies)

Today, heritage is assumed to be an old buildings and monuments, ancestral properties and
historical sites but it is not limited only to “brick and mortar” and the way a building looks or how
ancient it is. Heritage refers to places, objects and ideas that are culturally and socially valued and
have been passed on from generation to generation. Cultural heritage is the representation of the
ways of life that a community has established and passed down from one generation to the next.
Both Tangible and Intangible require different approaches for preservation and
safeguarding which has been one of the main motivations during the conception and ratification
of the 2003 UNESCO Convention. It marked the endorsement of ‘safeguarding of the Intangible
cultural heritage focusing on the non-material cultural heritage.’ India is a treasure trove of
cultural heritage and a storehouse of archaeological assets and important monuments. At present,
many heritage sites and remains are unidentified and unprotected, even the protected ones are
facing challenges. Therefore, certain steps should be taken to identify and solve those challenges
in a comprehensive manner.

CHALLEGES FACED BY TANGIBLE HERITAGE

1. Physical degradation/deterioration: Historic buildings, artefacts and monuments are subject
to natural decay over time due to climate change, pollution, human activities and lack of proper
maintenance. The conservation practices are also primarily directed towards world heritage sites
only causing a serious challenge to the tangible heritage.
2. Urbanisation: Globally, rapid urban expansion has led to destruction or alteration of historical
sites and landscape, prioritizing modern infrastructure over preservation making it difficult to
balance between development needs with heritage preservation to prevent irreversible loss.
3. Climate change: Rising sea-levels, extreme weather events and temperature changes is
endangering physical heritage sites leading to erosion, flooding or destabilization of structures.
Thus, implementing adaptive measures to mitigate it becomes a challenge. Eg: Taj Mahal was
badly affected by sulphur dioxide and other chemicals emitted by oil refinery at Mathura and
more than 200 furnaces used in Taj ganj area.
4. Inadequate funding: Inorder to conserve, preserve and protect the country’s tangible heritage,
conservation projects are stared which require substantial finance. However, securing consistent
funding for maintenance, restoration and preservation initiatives becomes a significant hurdle.
5. Lack of awareness: There are still a lot of communities that are unaware of the importance of
its local historical heritage. Therefore, to promote awareness and education to garner public
support for preservation effort becomes a problem.
6. Encroachment: Illegal occupation around ancient monuments has been a major concern in
India. These encroachments are done by local shopkeepers, souvenir sellers and local residents.
7. Tourism and irresponsible behaviour of visitors: increased tourism and lack of civic sense
among majority of the tourists have caused large damages to the monuments.
8. Lack of plan: Many monuments apart from the World Heritage Sites such as Taj Mahal,
Ajanta and Ellora Caves faces negligence of local or state administration. There is no proper plan
for the maintenance of these other sites which leads to haphazard growth around the sites and as
such they lose their charm.

CHALLEGES FACED BY INTANGIBLE HERITAGE

1. Changing lifestyles/social changes: Evolving societal norms and lifestyles may lead to a
decline in traditional practices. These social changes may be migration, shifting societal values
etc. These can disrupt intergenerational transmission of knowledge, leading to loss of traditional
skills, languages or rituals. To finds ways to adapt heritage practices to contemporary contexts
without compromising the authenticity of their traditional practices often becomes a problem.
2. Languages endangerment: Many aspects of intangible heritage such as folklore and oral
traditions etc are closely tied to specific languages. Therefore, preserving languages is crucial for
safeguarding associated intangible heritage elements. But the graving want to adapt other
languages at the cost of one’s own languages is a serious challenge of the hour.
3. Digitalization: Digital media and mass communication may standardize cultural expressions.
To ensure that digital platforms are used to promote rather than dilute, diverse intangible heritage
becomes a challenge.
4. Globalisation and homogenization: With the onslaught of global cultural homogenisation,
unique cultural traditions and practices are diluting/ threatened. Here the challenge is striking a
balance between preserving cultural diversity and embracing global influences.
5. Cultural appropriation: Commercialisation and exploitation of cultural expressions without
due respect or understanding pose a threat to the authenticity and meaning of intangible heritage.
Conservation and Development Initiatives/Addressing the Challenges
Conservation means an act of preserving, guarding or protecting a heritage so as to retain its
historical, architectural, aesthetic and cultural significance. The heritage sites, Monuments,
Archaeological sites and Sculptures in India are protected and conserved by the Ancient
Monuments and Archaeological Site and Remains Act, 1958 which was amended in 2010.
Effective conservation of heritage resources not only helps in preserving and safeguarding the
resources but also in revitalizing local economics, and in bringing about a sense of identity, pride
and belonging to residents.
Balancing modern needs with the preservation of cultural identity and heritage remains a
critical challenge. However, with concerted efforts and a global commitment to respecting and
safeguarding heritage, it’s possible to mitigate these challenges and ensure the inheritance of rich
cultural legacies for future generations.
1. Education and Awareness: Promoting awareness about the significance of both tangible and
intangible heritage helps garner support for their preservation among communities, policymakers
and the public.
2. Legislation and policies: Implementing strong laws, regulations, and policies at local, national
and international levels can promote heritage sites and practices from destruction and
exploitation.
3. Technology and Innovation: Leveraging technology for conservation efforts such as digital,
documentations, restoration techniques and sustainable management practices aids in preserving
heritage.
4. Community Involvement: Engaging local communities and stakeholders in decision- making
processes fosters a sense of ownership and encourages sustainable practices for heritage
conservation.

Q. WHY CONSERVTION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE IS IMPOETANT?

1) Helps in promoting cultural tourism: Historical monuments are significant tourist’s
attractions for tourists. They are a great way to promote cultural tourism in India. Indian
government is taking proper steps to protect these monuments.
2) Helps in preserving identity: Every ancient monument has some unique stories
associated with it. These stories explain the history of the city’s evolution and predictions
about where the city is going to head in the future. They add beauty to the town and
remind us that history belongs to everyone. Celebrating festivals is going to bring people
 together. Ancestors have passed these monuments which help us know what heritage is. It
is everyone’s responsibility to preserve them for upcoming generations.
3) Economic growth: The enhancement of the already built monuments will be
significantly cheaper than building new ones. Not only had this but it also helped in
employing the local population. The construction industry gets considerable benefits from
heritage conservation. All these things lead to the country’s economic development and
the cultural minister of India is taking steps in the right direction to make it happen.
4) Helps in increasing property value: It is observed that the preservation of these
historical monuments will increase their value and importance of their surrounding
properties. Mostly, the places near historical landmarks have higher property value than
those that do not have any historical landmarks.
5) The demolition waste can be reduced: A research study shows that demolition of the
typical brick house can produce an average of 60-100 tons worth of waste. Hence, it is
better to restore rather than obliterate them.
6) It is a part of something bigger: Just like the advancement of technology is
transforming the world, heritage preservation will also help the people living in this world
significantly. It will bring people from different parts of the world with different beliefs
and skill sets to work for a noble cause. It is going to promote respect among people.
Heritage preservation is going to help future generations understand about definition of
heritage.

GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES FOR HERITAGE CONSERVATION

The Government of India has taken some steps to preserve the tangible and intangible heritage of
the country.
INTANGIBLE HERITGE
1. Lalit kala Academy: It was founded with an aim to propagate understanding of Indian art
inside a well as outside the country and also offers fellowships for the promotion of these arts.
2. Sangeet Natak Akademy: It was established to preserve, propagate music of both Hindustani
and Carnatic.
3. Sahitya Akademy: It was established to promote literature through publication, translation,
seminars and fellowships along with honouring the literary figures.
4. Center for Cultural Resource and training (CCRT): It was set up as an autonomous
organisation, it links culture with education with education creating understanding and awareness
regarding India’s rich cultural heritage.
5. Zonal Cultural Centres: It was founded to spread knowledge of the local culture.

TANGIBLE HERITAGE
1. Archaeological survey of India: ASI was established under the Department of Culture. It
looks after the archaeological remains and excavations, maintenance of sites, conservation of
monuments conducting various expeditions abroad giving training in archaeology etc. It has many
sub divisions dealing with various purposes.
2. National Museum: It was established under the Ministry of Culture and dedicated to collection
and exhibition of various artefacts of historical importance, educate the public by conducting
educational activities, organise galleries, workshops etc. Museum up-gradation Scheme provide
financial help to state governments, societies, local bodies and trusts registered to set up new
museums.

OTHERS
1. Trust for public-private partnership
The National Culture Fund (NCF) is a trust established under the charitable Endowment Act
1890 by the Indian government through a Gazette Notification published on 28 th November 1996.
It was established to put in place a funding mechanism for the arts and culture in India, distinct
from the existing sources and chains of funding. This scheme enables individuals and institutions
to directly partner with the government, corporates/ public sector and NGOs to support arts and
culture. It was managed by a council and executive committee.
NCF is an innovative pattern of cultural funding which enables institutions and individuals to
perform their rightful role in promoting and preserving India’s rich cultural heritage and to a
larger extend to provide for financially the cultural aspirations of the society and the nation
2. Schemes
Through the Ministry of Tourism, the government has launched schemes aimed at preservation,
sustenance and better interpretative of components in the heritage circuit to meet the needs of the
travellers.
I. The PRASHAD (Pilgrimage Rejuvenation and Spiritual, Heritage Augmentation
Drive): It was introduced in 2015 to focus on identifying and developing pilgrim sites
across India to enrich the religious tourism experience.
II. Apni Dharohar, Apni Pehchaan scheme: Through a key initiative in collaborating with
the Ministry of Tourism, Ministry of culture and Archaeological survey of India (ASI) and
the States/ UTs government adopt a heritage scheme, “Apni Dharohar, Apni Pehchaan
 scheme which was launched in September 2017 to develop the heritage sites, monuments,
ruins and make them tourist-friendly.
The scheme encourages active participation and partnership of the public and private
sector companies and individuals. It focuses on sustainable models and social
responsibility rather than revenue generation.
III. HRIDAY (National Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana): The
Ministry of housing and Urban Affairs launched a National Heritage City Development
and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) scheme on 21st January 2015 to focus on the
holistic development of heritage cities with the aim to preserve and revitalize the rich
cultural heritage of India to reflect the city’s unique character by encouraging aesthetically
appealing, accessible, informative and secured environment.’
Some of the objectives of HRIDAY are given below:
i. The main objective of HRIDAY Scheme is to preserve character of the soul of
heritage city and facilities inclusive heritage linked urban development by
exploring various avenues including involving private sectors.
ii. Planning, development and implementation of heritage sensitive infrastructure.
iii. Service delivery and infrastructure provisioning in historic core areas.
iv. Preserve and revitalize heritage wherein tourists can connect directly with city’s
unique character.
v. Develop and document a heritage asset inventory of cities-natural, cultural, living
and built heritage as a basis for urban planning, growth and service provision and
delivery.
vi. Implementation and enhancement of basis services delivery with focus on
sanitation services like public conveniences toilets, water taps, street lights with
use of latest technologies in improving tourists facilities and amenities.
vii. Local capacity enhancement for inclusive heritage based industry.
viii. Create linkage between tourism and cultural facilities and also conservation of
natural and built heritage.
ix. Establish and manage effective public private partnership for adaptive urban
rehabilitation.
3. International Initiatives
On 19th November 2015, the 20th General Assembly of the States Parties to the World Heritage
Convention adopted a policy on the integration of a sustainable development perspective into the
processes of the World Heritage Convention. The overall goal of the policy is to assist States
Parties, Practitioners.
The UNESCO World Heritage centre has also outlined ‘tourism strategies, planning and
management frameworks to protect heritage environment, engaging broad sets of stakeholders
and empowering local communities.’
All the Government Schemes aim towards a holistic and multipronged approach for
sustainable tourism and heritage management that is environment friendly and economically
progressive.

ANTIQUITY SMUGGLING
Antiquity smuggling is the illegal transportation of ancient monuments, things, objects or artifacts
across national or international border in violation of applicable laws or regulations. Today,
antiquities are subjected to destruction, smuggling and fake or replicas of antiquities. Inorder to
successfully prevent antiquity smuggling, international cooperation to combat smuggling is the
need of the hour.
The 18th century was the golden age of smuggling as smuggling of antiquities and cultural
properties is thought to be a big business. This was organised by gangs who were funded by
investors or ventures. All the countries impose restriction on the export of various classes of
cultural property and antiquities ranging from archaeological objects to coins to older art works
often leading to illegal export from the country of origin. According to Interpol’s estimates, the
antiquities trade on its own ranks behind only drugs and arms in the scale of illegal trafficking.
Collectively, these illicit activities represent the darker side of globalisation.
Smuggling requires extra-legal activities that may promote corruption, impose a strain on
international relations and potentially dampen the gains from legitimate international trade. Thus,
illicit trade is an important element of political economy and international trade. Unfortunately,
we have little knowledge of the dynamics of the illicit trade as data on illegal activities are by
their very nature difficult to obtain.

TYPES OF SMUGGLING
1. Looting: It refers to the act of illegal excavation aimed at finding antiquities/artefacts which
were previously unknown. These criminal activities always involve excavation and happen in
locations where looters believe that antiquities are buried without any guarantee.
2. Theft: It is used to refer to the removal of known antiquities from their prior established and
known location. It is more likely to happen in renowned open archaeological sites, museum,
collections or any location where the presence of antiquities is certain.
3. Vandalism: Such an operation is always proceeding by destruction of cultural property inorder
to sell them at high price. This happens mostly in the international markets where it fetches
fabulous.
Studies in Antiquities Trafficking have shown that a significant part of the damage to the
World’s heritage has been done by a growing illegal economy of stolen arts and looted
antiquities. In the last half of the century it has become renowned that art and antiquities
acquisition has become an instrument of money laundering for organised criminal groups and
mafias.

FACTORS LEADING TO THE SMUGGLING OF ANTIQUITY

1. Loose International Regulations: Due to the loose international regulations on the illicit
antiquities market, it has provided a ready environment for the laundering of unprovenanced and
stolen artefacts into pieces proudly exhibited in museum and personal collections.
2. Involvement of organised groups: The presence of organised crime groups well placed to
organise or tap into pre-existing networks of transport, promote and sell illicit antiquities on the
same market place as legal ones has led to the increase in antiquities smuggling.
3. International Terrorism: Antiquities trafficking have also been increasingly associated with
international terrorism especially after the world witnessed the Islamic State (IS) fighters
bombing and ransacking the World Heritage Site of Palmyra in Syria in 2015.
In 2018, the Spanish national police launched operation Harmakhis to investigate the trafficking
of antiquities from Libya’s Cyrenaica region to fund al-Qaida cells in North Africa.
4. Political Instability: During a political turmoil or unrest in a country the local militias and
non-state actors resort to heritage trafficking as a way to guarantee revenue to fund armed
insurgency. In conflict, looting comes hand in hand with outright destruction of heritage.
5. Food Insecurity: Looting is also a factor of the population’s economic condition, as the local
population will turn to looting and antiquities theft when faced with economic and political
hardship as results of war.

METHODS USED BY SMUGGLERS

1. False declaration of the value of shipment.
2. False declaration of the country of the shipment.
3. Vague and misleading descriptions of shipment content.
4. Splitting a single large object into several smaller pieces for separate deliveries, allowing
informal entry and reassembly later after receipt.
5. Addressing a shipment to a third party, falsely stated to be the address of the purchaser for
subsequent transfer to the actual purchaser.
6. Failure to complete appropriate customs paperwork.
7. Concealing antiquities in shipment of similar legitimate commercial goods.

NATIONAL MISSION ON MOUMENTSAND ANTIQUITIES (NMMA)

 It was launched in 2007 to document the country’s monument and antiquities. Initially set
up for a period of 5 years (2007-2012) but it was extended till 2017 and later merged with
ASI.
 It will help in the creation of a database of all antiquities and can be referred to readily in
case of fraudulent dealings and left.
 It has registered 3.52 lakhs antiquities from the 16.70 lakhs it has documented for an
effective check on illegal activities.

ADVANCED ANTIQUITIES MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

 It is a software - driven automated storage initiated by the Goa Government claims to be
the 1st system in the country for storage of antiquities.
 It provides information about the age of antiquity, the material it is made of and its brief
history.

CONFLICTS OF ANTIQUITY SMUGGLING WITH SPECIIC CASE STUDY

Antiquities trafficking in conflict zone:
1. Syria is a country that have faced decade of ceaseless civil strife and even today there is much
risk of losing its cultural heritage due to military destruction, looting and pillaging. For instance,
the world has witnessed the Islamic State (IS) fighters bombing and ransacking the world heritage
site of Palmyra in Syria in 2015.
Most scholars and specialised archaeologists agreed that Syria’s archaeological
heritage was one of the richest in the whole of the Middle East region. However, the outbreak of
the Syrian revolution in 2011 has led to the devastation of the people of the country and produced
irreversible damage to Syrian cultural heritage. In the past 10 years, Syria has been the world’s
greatest victim of human and heritage loss, a total destruction caused by the internationalised of a
localised conflict.
Cultural Heritage Initiative (CHI): in 2014, ASOR (American School of
Oriental Research) initiated an international collaboration between scholars in the US, Europe and
Middle East known as CHI with the aim of gathering open source intelligence to document
cultural heritage at risk in Syria and Iraq.
2. Subhas Kapoor arrest 2011: In 2011, Kapoor owner of the “Art of the Past” gallery in
Manhattan was nabbed in Germany and subsequently extradited to India. He is alleges to have
sold the 900 years old bronze Nataraj for $ 5 million to the National Gallery of Australia in 2008
and a 1100 years old Stone Sculpture of Shiva to the Art Gallery of New South Wales in 2004.
The American Authorities confiscated 2,622 items worth $107.6 million from
Kapoor’s storerooms in Manhattan and Queens. They have described him as the most ambitious
antiquities smuggler in American history.
In June 2015, ASI unearthed a trove of Indian antiquities in Singapore also
allegedly procured from Kapoor. The loot included 30 objects, including idols and paintings
whose provenance could be traced to the 10th century. Most of these were sold by Kapoor’s
gallery between 2007 and 2012 to Singapore.