Introduction to Mechanical Engineering

Unit – II Mechanics of Materials and Structures

Stress and strain

Stress is the internal force per unit area within a material resisting an external load, while
strain is the resulting deformation (change in shape/size) relative to the original, essentially
measuring how much it stretches or squashes. Stress is measured in Pascals (Pa or N/m²),
while strain is a dimensionless ratio (like length/length), and their relationship (Hooke's
Law/Stress-Strain Curve) shows material properties like elasticity and failure points, crucial
in engineering.

Stress (σ)

 Definition: Force applied per unit of cross-sectional area (internal resistance).

 Formula: 𝜎 = 𝐹/𝐴 (Force / Area).
 Units: Pascals (Pa) or Newtons per square meter (N/m²).
 Types: Tensile (pulling), compressive (pushing), shear (tangential).

Strain (ε)

 Definition: The measure of deformation (change in length/volume) relative to the

original dimension.
 Formula: 𝜀 = Δ𝐿/𝐿 (Change in Length / Original Length).
 Units: No Unit (e.g., meters/meters).

The Stress-Strain Curve

 A graph plotting stress (y-axis) vs. strain (x-axis).

 Shows material behavior: elastic region (returns to shape), yield point (permanent
deformation starts), ultimate strength, and fracture point.
 Helps engineers select materials for specific loads.

Key Relationship
Hooke's Law: In the elastic region, stress is directly proportional to strain.

Types of stresses

Tensile, compressive, and shear are fundamental types of stress showing how forces deform
materials: Tensile stress pulls a material apart (stretching); compressive stress pushes it
together (shortening/crushing); and shear stress acts parallel to the surface, causing layers to
slide or tear, like cutting paper with scissors, while bending and torsional stresses are also
common. These stresses are calculated as Force/Area (F/A) and are crucial in engineering to
ensure structural safety.

1. Tensile Stress (Tension)

Action: A pulling force that elongates or stretches the material along its axis.

Example: A rope holding a weight or steel cables in a suspension bridge.

2. Compressive Stress (Compression)

Action: A pushing force that shortens or compresses the material along its axis, the opposite
of tension.

Example: A column supporting a building's roof or a brick on the ground.

3. Shear Stress

Action: Forces acting parallel or tangential to the material's surface, causing layers to slide
past each other.

Example: A bolt fastening two plates together or the force that makes a deck of cards slide
when pushed from the side.

Elasticity and Plasticity

Elasticity is a material's ability to spring back to its original shape after a force is removed
(like a rubber band), while plasticity is its tendency to undergo permanent deformation
without breaking (like clay), even after the force is gone. Elastic behavior is temporary and
reversible, occurring at lower forces, whereas plastic behavior is permanent, irreversible, and
requires higher forces, often involving changes to the material's internal structure (atomic
movement).

Elasticity

 Definition: The property of returning to the original shape and size after deforming
stress is removed.
 Deformation: Temporary, reversible.
 Force Level: Occurs under small loads, within the material's elastic limit.
 Behavior: Atoms stretch but don't permanently shift.
 Examples: Stretching a spring, bouncing a rubber ball, steel beams.

Plasticity

 Definition: The ability to undergo permanent change in shape without fracturing.

 Deformation: Permanent, irreversible.
 Force Level: Occurs when stress exceeds the elastic limit (yield strength).
 Behavior: Atoms move and rearrange permanently (e.g., via dislocation motion).
 Examples: Bending a metal paperclip, molding clay, forging metals.

Key Differences

 Reversibility: Elastic (yes) vs. Plastic (no).

 Energy: Elastic deformation stores energy (resilience), while plastic deformation
dissipates it.
 Applications: Elasticity for support (bridges), plasticity for shaping (rolling metal).

Mechanical properties of materials

Mechanical properties define how a material reacts to applied forces (loads) like tension,
compression, or twisting, crucial for selecting materials that withstand stress, deform, or
break in specific ways. Strength resists overall permanent deformation or fracture under load
(like in beams); Hardness resists localized surface damage like scratches or dents (like in
bearings); while Toughness measures a material's ability to absorb energy and deform
plastically before fracturing, combining strength with ductility (crucial for impact parts like
landing gear). A material can be strong but brittle (low toughness, e.g., cast iron), or tough
but not extremely strong.

Strength

 Definition: Ability to withstand an applied load or force without failure (permanent

deformation or fracture).
 Types: Includes yield strength (onset of plastic deformation) and ultimate tensile
strength (maximum stress before fracture).
 Measurement: Pascals (Pa), Megapascals (MPa), Gigapascals (GPa).
 Application: Structural frames, pressure vessels, machine parts.

Hardness

 Definition: Resistance to localized plastic deformation, such as indentation,

scratching, or wear.
 Measurement: Brinell (HB), Vickers (HV), Rockwell (HRC) scales.
 Application: Cutting tools, gears, bearings, surfaces needing wear resistance.

Toughness

 Definition: Ability to absorb energy and deform plastically without fracturing

(combines strength and ductility).
 Measurement: Energy absorbed before fracture (Joules/m² or MPa√m).
 Application: Aircraft landing gear, turbine blades, automotive crash structures.

Key Differences & Relationships

 Strength vs. Toughness: Strong materials resist load, tough materials resist fracture
from sudden impacts; a material can be strong but brittle (low toughness) or tough but
not super strong.
 Hardness vs. Strength: Hardness is surface-level resistance to denting, while strength
is bulk resistance to overall failure.
 Toughness vs. Brittleness: Brittle materials fracture with little energy/deformation,
while tough materials absorb significant energy before breaking.
Introduction to bending torsion and axial loading

Axial, bending, and torsional loads are fundamental ways forces act on structures, causing
internal stresses: Axial loading pulls (tension) or pushes (compression) along the member's
axis (e.g., a rope, a column). Bending involves transverse loads creating tension on one side
and compression on the other, causing a member to curve (e.g., a diving board). Torsion
creates twisting stresses (shear) from applied torques (e.g., a screwdriver turning a screw).
Understanding these, often combined in real-world scenarios (like shafts), is crucial for
designing safe structures, as engineers use formulas and material properties to predict
deformation and failure.

1. Axial Loading

 Definition: force acting directly along the longitudinal axis of a member.

 Types:
o Tension: Pulls the member apart (stretching).
o Compression: Pushes the member together (shortening).
 Stress: Produces uniform normal stress (𝜎=𝑃/𝐴), where P is the force and A is the
cross-sectional area.
 Example: A hanging cable (tension) or a building column (compression).

2. Bending (Transverse Loading)

 Definition: Forces applied perpendicular to the member's axis, creating internal

moments.
 Stress: Causes normal stresses that are tensile on one side of the neutral axis and
compressive on the other, varying across the section.
 Key Concept: Uses the bending equation (𝜎=𝑀𝑐/𝐼), where M is the bending moment,
c is distance to the extreme fiber, and I is the area moment of inertia.
 Example: A beam supporting a floor, a diving board.

3. Torsion Loading

 Definition: Twisting of a member due to applied torque (twisting moment).

 Stress: Induces shear stress (𝜏) that is zero at the center and maximum at the outer
surface, calculated by 𝜏=𝑇𝑟/𝐽 (T=Torque, r=radius, J=Polar Moment of Inertia).
 Example: A driveshaft in a car, twisting a doorknob.
Simple structural analysis and design concepts

Simple structural analysis determines how loads (gravity, wind, seismic) affect a structure by
calculating internal forces (shear, moment) and deformations, while design uses these results
to select member sizes and materials, ensuring stability, strength, and serviceability using
principles like equilibrium (forces balanced) and material properties to prevent failure. Key
concepts involve loads, support reactions, internal forces (stress/strain), equilibrium (ΣF=0,
ΣM=0), compatibility, and design methods (e.g., Limit State) to size members like beams and
columns.

Structural Analysis Concepts

 Loads: External forces like dead loads (permanent weight), live loads (occupants,
furniture), and environmental loads (wind, snow, earthquake).
 Support Reactions: Forces exerted by supports (foundations, walls) to keep the
structure from moving.
 Internal Forces: Forces within members: Axial (tension/compression), Shear, and
Bending Moment.
 Stress & Strain: Stress is force per unit area (𝜎=𝐹/𝐴), and strain is the resulting
deformation (change in length/original length).
 Equilibrium: The sum of all forces and moments on the structure must be zero for
stability (no movement).
 Compatibility: Deformations must be physically possible (e.g., connected parts move
together).
 Load Paths: How forces travel from where they are applied through the structure to
the ground.
Structural Design Concepts

 Objective: Create a safe, functional, and economical structure that resists loads
without failing.
 Design Steps:
1. Analyze: Determine internal forces and deflections (from analysis).
2. Size Members: Select dimensions (beams, columns) and materials (concrete,
steel) so stresses stay below limits.
3. Detailing: Specify reinforcement (in concrete) or connections for strength and
durability.
 Key Principles:
o Stability: Prevents overturning, sliding, or collapse.
o Strength: Resists forces without yielding or fracturing.
o Serviceability: Controls deflections and vibrations for user comfort.
o Material Selection: Choosing materials (steel, concrete, wood) with
appropriate strength and stiffness.

Simple Example: A Beam

 Analysis: A beam under a downward load develops upward support reactions, internal
shear forces, and bending moments, causing it to deflect downwards.
 Design: The beam is sized so concrete and steel reinforcement can handle these
moments and shears, preventing excessive cracking or failure, ensuring it's stiff
enough not to sag too much.