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System:- Group of number of particle mutually interacting is called system. A body of fixed size and shape is
made of number of molecule is called a system.
Internal Forces: - All the forces exerted by various particles of the system on one another are called internal
forces. The internal forces between a pair or particles are equal are opposite i.e. forces are mutual. Hence such
forces cancel out each other.
External Forces:- Force exerted on a given system by the agencies outside the system is called an external
force . Motion of a body is affected by external forces only.
Rigid body:−It is a body with a perfectly definite and unchanging shape under the
influence of deforming force. The distances between different pairs of such a body do
not change.
Practically no real body is truly rigid, sincereal bodies deform under the influence of forces. But in
manysituations the deformations are negligible then the solid bodies are considered as rigid bodies.
Motion of rigid bodies:-General motion of a rigid body: - Motion of rigid bodies is of two types.
1) Translatory Motion: - If a body moves in such a way that all its constituent particles suffer same
displacement then it is called translatory motion. In translatory motion all particle moves with same velocity
and their paths are parallel to each other (straight or curved). e.g. motion of bus ,motion of freely falling body.
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2) Rotational Motion: - When a body moves (rotates) about a fixed line (axis) then motion of the body is
called rotational motion.
The most common way to constrain a rigid body so that it does not have translational motion is to fix it along a
straight line. The only possible motion of such a rigid body is rotation.
Theline along which the body is fixed is termed as its axis of [Link] particle of the body
moves in a
circle, which lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis and has its centre on the axis.
It can be either in 2-dimension or 3-dimension e.g (1) Motion of earth on its own axis (2) Motion of a fan (3)
Motion of a gramophone record. etc.
In rotational motion path of each particle is circular and parallel to each other. Each particle form same angle

with centre hence angular velocities of particles is same for each particle.  =constant. But position vector r
of each particle is different so according to v = r  , the linear velocities of each particle is different.

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 
Let OA  r1 , OB  r2 .Since r1> r2 so v1> v2 . i.e. particle near the rotation axis
moves with less speed and particle away from the axis will moves with more speed.
In some examples of rotation, however, the axis may not be fixed. A prominent example of this kind of rotation
is a top spinning in place. (We assume that the top does not slip from place to place and so does not have
translational motion.) We know from experience that the axis of such a spinning top moves around the vertical
through its point of contact with the ground, sweeping out a cone as shown in Fig. (This movement of the axis
of the top around the vertical is termed precession.) Note, the point of contact of the top
withground is fixed. The axis of rotation of the top at any instant passes through the point of contact.
Another simple example of this kind of rotation is the oscillating table fan or a pedestal fan.
Analogy Between Liner Motion and Rotational Motion:−
Translatory motion Rotatory motion
Displacement / distance (s) Angle or angular displacement ()
ds d
Linear velocity v  Angular velocity  
dt dt

dv d 2 s d d 2
Linear acceleration a   Angular acceleration    2
dt dt 2 dt dt
Mass (m) Moment of inertia (I)
Linear momentum P  mv Angular momentum L  I
Force F  ma Torque   I
dp dL
Force F  Torque  
dt dt
Translatory kinetic energy Rotatory kinetic energy
1 1 P2 1 2 1 L2
KT  mv 2 = Pv = KR  I = Lω=
2 2 2m 2 2 2I
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Work done W  F.s Work done W    d

Power P  Fv Power P  
Principal of conservation of linear momentum – Principal of conservation of angular momentum –
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linear momentum of system is conserved when no angular momentum of a system is conserved when no
external force acts on the system. external torque acts on the system.
Equation of translatory motion Equation of rotatory motion
(i) v  u  at (i)   0   t
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1
(ii) s  ut  at 2 (ii)   0t 
1
 t2
2 2
(iii) v 2  u 2  2as (iii)  0 2   2  2
a
(iv) s n  u  (2n  1) 
2 (iv) n  0  (2n  1)
2

Angular displacement ( ):- The angle described by the position vector r about the axis of rotation is called
angular position or angular [Link] displacement is not a vector quantity.
Hence, a single variable, angular displacement () can be used to describe the rotational motion of the rigid body.
Angular Velocity ():- The rate of change of angular displacement with time is called angular velocity.
Angular displacement d 
   OR   radian/second.
time taken dt t
The angular velocity is a vector. For rotation about a fixed axis, the angular velocity vector lies along the axis
of rotation, and points out in the direction in which a right handed screw would advance, if the head of the
screw is rotated with the [Link] the head of a right handed screw rotates with the body, the screw advances in
the direction of the angular velocity  If the sense (clockwise or anticlockwise) of rotation of the body changes,
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so does the direction of For rotation about a fixed axis, the direction of the vector does
not change with time.
The angular velocity vector is directed along the fixed axis as [Link] linear velocity of the particle at P is
v = × r. It is perpendicular to both and r and is directed along the tangent to the circle described by the particle.

Angular Acceleration () :- The rate of change of angular velocity with time is called angular acceleration .
 v w
If  is the change in angular velocity in t, then :   (units of  : rad/s2) [ at  r  at  r ]
t t t

   
 If the axis of rotation is fixed, the direction of  is same as that of  and it is fixed.
t
NOTE :−  ,,  can be clockwise or anti-clockwise. We can take anti-clockwise direction as positive and
clockwise direction as negative or vice versa.   and  are always in same direction.
  and  are opposite if the rotating body slows down. (same as in the case of retardation in linear motion)
Centre of mass:- Centre of mass of a system is the point where total mass of the body can be assumed to be
concentrated.
Or Centre of mass of a system is a point which moves in the same way in which a single particle having the
total mass of the system would move.
Centre of mass of a system is a point which represents the motion of the system.
Centre of mass is an imaginary point which is defined mathematically for sake of convenience. It is not
necessary that total mass of the system be actually present at the centre of mass. There may not be any mass
present at the centre of mass e.g. centre of mass e.g. centre of mass of a ring.
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Centre of mass for a two particle system:- Consider a two particle system of mass m1 and m2 , their
   
position vectors are OA  r1 and OB  r2 respectively. Let C is centre of mass &position vector of centre of
 
mass. Let C isthe position of centre of mass of the system with position vector OC  R cm
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 
dr  dr
Velocities of the particles at any instant v1  1 & v 2  2 - - - -(1)
dt dt
Let F1 = external force applied on particle of mass m1.
F2 = external force applied on particle of mass m2.
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F12 = internal force on m1 exerted by m2.

F21 = internal force on m2 exerted by m1
According to Newton‟s second law s of motion, the rate of
change of momentum is equal to total force applied on it.

d p1  
st
For 1 particle  F12  F1 - - - -(2)
dt

d p2  
nd
For 2 particle  F12  F1 - - - -(3)
dt
 
But according to Newton‟s 3rd law F12   F21 so
 
F12  F21  0 .i.e Force exerted by 2 nd particle on 1st is equal & opposite to the force exerted by 1st on 2nd .
  
F1  F2  F ext is total external force acting on the body.
 
 
d p1 d p2 d   
  F1  F2  ( p1  p2 )  Fext
dt dt dt

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 
   d d r1 dr 
d
(m1 v 1  m2 v 2 )  Fext  (m1  m2 2 )  Fext
dt dt dt dt
d2   
( m1 r 1  m r
2 2 )  Fext  Multiplying and dividing eq by m1  m2
dt 2
   
d 2 m1 r 1  m2 r2   m r 1  m2 r2
( )  F Let R cm  1 - - - (4)
m1  m2 m1  m2
ext
dt 2

d 2 R cm 
m1  m2 is total mass of the system. Hence m 2
 Fext This equation of motion for centre of mass.
dt
Eq (4) shows position vector of centre of mass. Position vector of centre of mass is equal to ratio of sum of the
products of masses of the particles and their respective position vector to the total mass of the system.
If external force is only effective then the centre of mass lies on the line joining the two particles.
Special Case: - When mass of two particles is same. m1  m2 .
     
 m r 1  m r2  m( r 1  r2 )  r 1  r2
R cm   R cm  Hence R cm 
m m 2m 2
Centre of mass for N- Particlesystem: - Consider a system of N-particles of mass m1, m2,m3, m4 - - .
       
Their position vectors are r 1 , r2 , r 3 , r4     respectively. Let v 1 , v 2 , v 3 , v 4     be the
   
instantaneous velocities of the particles and F1 , F2 , F 3 , F4     are the external force acting on the
particle respectively. Since mutual interaction forces are equal and opposite to each other so they cancel out
each other according to Newton‟s IIIrd law of [Link] to Newton‟s second law of motion−
  
d p1 d p2 d p3   
       F1  F2  F3     
dt dt dt
d     d    
( p1  p2  p3     )  Fext  (m1 v 1  m2 v 2  m3 v 3    )  Fext
dt dt
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  
dr  d d    
d d r1 dr
(m1  m2 2  m3 3     )  Fext   (m1 r 1  m2 r2  m3 r3    )  Fext
dt dt dt dt dt dt
Multiplying and dividing eq by LHS by total mass of the body m = m1  m2  m3      mn
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     
d 2 m1 r 1  m2 r2  m3 r3        mn rn   m1 r 1  m2 r2  m3 r3        mn rn
( )  F Let R cm 
dt 2
m1  m2  m3      mn
ext
m1  m2  m3      mn
Hence centre of mass of N-particle system is a point where whole mass of the system is assumed to
concentrate. It is equal to ratio of sum of product of mass and position vector to the sum of mass of all particles. i.e
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The centre of mass of a system of n particles is equal to the weighted average of the position vectors of n particles
forming the system .
Spacial case:−If n particle having mass m1, m2 ….m n and are placed in space (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2) ……….(x
n, y n, z n) then centre of mass of system is defined as (X, Y, Z) where

1 1 1
X=
M i
 mi xi Y =
M i
 mi y i and Z =  m z where M = i mi is the total mass of the system.
M i i i
Locate the point with coordinates (X, Y, Z). This point is called the centre of mass of the given collection of the
particles. If the position vector of the ith particle is ri, the centre of mass is defined to have the position vector
 
1
RCM   mi ri
M i
As we make n bigger and bigger and each mismaller and smaller, these expressions become exact. In that
case, we denote the sumsover i by integrals. Thus,midm M,
mi)xixdm,mi)yiydm,mi)zizdm,
The coordinates of the centre of mass now are
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The vector expression equivalent to these three scalar expressions is
Conclusion: - The position of centre of mass of the body depends on the shape and size of the body and
distribution of its mass. Hence it may lies within or out side the material of the body.
   
 dr d m r 1  m2 r2  m3 r3        mn rn
(1) Velocity of centre of mass vcm  cm  ( 1 )
dt dt m1  m2  m3      mn
    
d vcm d 2 rcm d 2 m1 r 1  m2 r2  m3 r3        mn rn
(2) Acceleration of centre mass Acm    2( )
dt dt 2 dt m1  m2  m3      mn
 
  dv  d 2 rcm
(3) Force  M A cm  F  M  cm  F  M  .
dt dt 2
 
For an isolated system, no external force is acting. Therefore F  0 , then Vcm  constant
Hence centre of mass of an isolated system moves with a uniform velocity along a straight-line path.
Examples of motion of centre of mass:-( 1) In case of earth and moon system, the centre of mass
describes an ellipse around the sun. Both earth and moon revolve around the centre of mass in circle and
always an opposite side of centre of mass. The centre of mass of the earth moon system revolve around the sun
is an elliptical orbit.(2)In case of automobiles an aeroplanes moving with a velocity, it refers to the velocity of
the centre of mass of all particles.(3)A fire cracker goes on a parabolic path due to constant acceleration of
earth‟s gravity. After explosion each fragment will travel on its own parabolic [Link] explosion is caused
by internal forces alone, the centre of mass of all fragments will continue to travel further on the original
parabola. Though,after explosion the centre of mass is only a mathematical point.
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(4)In radioactive decay atom disintegrate into parts due to only internal forces. So momentum of the system
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remainsconstant. Therefore the decay products fly in the opposite direction, so the centre of mass of the system
remains at rest. Heavier mass moves with less speed and lighter mass with high speed.

Centre of mass of rigid body:- Centre of mass is a fixed point for a rigid body. It does not change with
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time because in rigid body position of particles are fixed. Centre of mass of a rigid body may lie within the
body depends on-A) Distribution of mass through out the volume of the body. B) Shape of the body.
Symmetrical rigid body having uniform distribution of mass. In most of these cases centre of mass is at the
geometrical centre e.g. uniform solid rod, uniform solid disc uniform solid sphere, cube, uniform cylinder.
In case of circular ring and hollow sphere the centre of mass is at geometric centre and lies outside the body .
In solid cone the centre of mass lies at a point which is at ¾ L to the vertex, where L is height of cone.
Torque:- When a tangential force is applied on a body then body starts rotation, this rotating ( turning) effect
of force is called torque . It is denoted by .It is alsocalled moment of force.
The rotational analogue of force isTorque. Torque is equal to product of force and perpendicular distance of
the line of action of force from the axis of rotation.
 = Force × perpendicular distance - - - -(1)
  
Let a force F acting on a particle with position vector OP  r .
 
Angle between F and r is . The force can have two components F

Cosalong direction of r called radial force and F Sin

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
perpendicular to r called tangential [Link] tangential component F Sin  can only produce rotation motion.
From eq (1)
 = F Sin  × r  = r F Sin  - - - -(2)
    
In vector form   r F Sin  n Hence   r  F
Case –I if  = 0, then torque  = r F Sin 0 = 0 (Minimum)
Case –II if  = 90,then torque  = r F Sin 90 = r F (Maximum)
Value of torque depends on r and F for a constant force we can increase the torque by increasing the value of „r
„ this is the principle of Lever arm.
We use this phenomenon to increase the torque in daily life–
a) To pull out water by hand pump we use long handle.
b) Screw driver has long and big handle.c) We fix the handle on doors and windows far from hinges.
d) To unscrew a nut fitted to a bolt, we need a wrench with a long arm.
Dimension formula of torque is [M1L2T -2] same as to that of work and energy. SI unit is N×m , but Torque is
quite different from work because torque is a vector quantity and work is a scalar .
Torque in Cartesian co-ordinate system: -Consider a body rotates In X-Y plane about point O. At time t=0
    
position vector of body OP  r 1  x i  y j . If a force F is applied alone PA so that APB =  . After time
      
„t‟ its new position vector is OQ  r 1  ( x  dx) i  ( y  dy) j so displacement is d r  dx i  dy j .
Torque   x . Fy  y . Fx
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Torque in Polar co-ordinate system: Therefore torque   r F Sin .

    
  r F Sin n Hence vector form of torque is   r  F
1) InΔONP Sin  = d/r so torque  = r F d/r
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Hence  = F d = Force × perpendicular distance of the force from the rotational axis.
2)   r F Sin  r F = Distance from rotation axis × Tangential force.

        
Torque in three Dimensions: -   r  F  ( x i  y j  z k )  ( i FX  j FY  k FZ )
  
i j k
   
  x y z  i ( y FZ  z FY )  j ( z FX  x FZ )  k ( x FY  y FX )
FX FY FZ

Work done: -When you exert a torque on an object making it

displacethrough ,
We say we are doing work w on the object. Work is a scalar quantity.
Work = Torque x Angular DisplacementW =  d
Power: -Power measures the efficiency of work transfer,
Power is defined as the rate of doing work or work done per unit time,

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Work W
Power   P
Time dt
W   d  
P  Hence P    
dt dt
Hence torque plays same role in rotation motion as the force do in translatory motion. Hence torque can be
treated as analogue of force.
Angular Momentum: -Moment of linear momentum is called angular momentum. OR
The quantity of rotational motion (The turningmovement) posses by a body about an axis of rotation is called
angular momentum.
In rotational motion, the angular momentum L of an object is defined as the product of its linear momentum
and the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the line of the velocity vector.
Physical meaning of angular momentum is measure of rotational motion of the body.
Angular Momentum = Mass x Velocity × Perpendicular Distance (SI unit: kg · m2/s)
L = r p SinORL = m v r Sin 
    
L  r p Sin n Hence vector form of angular momentum is L  r  p
 
Angular momentum is a vector quantity its direction is perpendicular to the direction of both r & p . Its
direction is given by Fleming‟s right hand rule.
1) In ΔONP Sin  = d/r so angular momentum L = r p d/r
Hence  = p d = Force × perpendicular distance of the force from the rotational axis.
2) L  r p Sin  r p = Distance from rotation axis × Tangential force.

Angular momentum in Cartesian co-ordinate system: - L  x . p y  y . p x
        
Angular momentum in three Dimensions: - L  r  p  ( x i  y j  z k )  ( i p X  j pY  k p Z )
  
i j k
   
L x y z  i ( y pz  z p y )  j ( z px  x pz )  k ( x p y  y px ) .
px py pz
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Geometric Meaning of Angular Momentum: -Consider a body rotates in X-Y plane about Z-axis. At
 
t = 0 its position is A, after timeΔ t its position is at B with position vector r & r  r .
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r
So velocity of the particle is v  Hence  r  v   t - - - -(1)
t
1 1
Area swept out by the position vector in Δ t time is  A 
Base  Height   r   r
2 2
1 m
Multiplying and dividing RHS by 2m& from eq1 putting value of Δr .  A     r  v  t
2 m
A 1 1 1
   mvr  L
t 2 m 2m

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A
L  2 m Hence Angular momentum = 2 m × Areal velocity.
t
Angular momentum is equal to product of twice the mass of the body and the areal velocity. This is known as
geometric meaning of angular momentum.
Area swept out by the line joining the particle with rotation axis per unit time is called areal velocity.
Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion: -In 1617, the famous German astronomer and mathematician
Johannes Kepler published three laws of planetary motion:
Kepler’s1st Orbit Law: -All the planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits, with the sun at one of the
focus of the ellipse.
Kepler `s 2nd Area Law : -A line joining the sun and a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time
[Link] velocity of all the planet is constant.
dL
  Since external force acting on the planet is gravitational force which is radial force, so there is no
dt
external tangential force acting on the planet. Hence no external torque acting on the body so  = 0.
dL
Therefore 0
dt
dL = 0 i.e. Change in angular momentum is constant
Hence Angular momentum L = Constant
Or 2m × Areal velocity = ConstantAreal velocity = Constant.
Kepler’s3rd Period Law: -It state that –“Square of time period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube
of the average radius of the planet”. T 2  R 3 Hence T 2  k R 3
For any planet in the solar system, the ratio of the cube of its average distance from the sun to the square of its
revolution period is a constant.
T12 R12
 Where the average distance R= ( Rmax + Rmin ) / 2 k is a constant that depends on the primary, the
T22 R22
body that the satellite is orbiting. The primary for all the planets is the sun. So k is the same for all the planets.
Kepler's laws apply to the planets, the moons and other satellites.
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Relation between Linear and angular acceleration: --Relation between linear and angular velocity
v = r
dv d dv d
Differentiating eq with respect to time  (r) so  r
dt dt dt dt
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.a = r  . Where  is angular acceleration.

Linear acceleration
Relation between torque and angular momentum: --We know that angular momentum
  
L  r  p Differentiating this equation with respect to time `t‟.
   
I

   dp
dL dp dr
 r    p From Newton‟s IInd Law of motion external force F  ,
dt dt dt dt

  
dr
Linear momentum p  m v &velocity v 
dt

      
dL
 r  F  v m v But torque   r  F
dt

    
dL
   m v  v But cross product of two vectors is zero so v  v  0 .
dt
 
 dL 
dL
So    0 .Or   This is equation of motion for rotatory motion. Hence the rate of
dt dt
change of angular momentum with time is equal to the external torque applied on it, this Newton second law in
rotational motion.
Relation between Angular momentum and Moment of Inertia:--
We know that angular momentum L=rp------(1)
Bagdi Rotational Motion-10 Bagdi
 Bagdi Rotational Motion-11 Bagdi
But linear momentum p=mv, so L=rmv------(2)
From relation between linear and angular velocity v = r  , then L = r m × r .
L = m r2 ×But mr2=I, is moment of inertia so, L = I  .
Relation between Torque and Moment of Inertia:--We know that torque  = r F -----(1)
But force F=ma .Hence = r m a - - - (2)
From relation between linear and angular acceleration a = r .
So  = r m × r  = m r2But moment of inertia I=mr2Hence = I  .
Conservation of Angular Momentum: - Statement:--If there is no external torque acts on a system then
the total angular momentum of the system remain constant .i.e. L =Constant.
Final Angular Momentum of the System = Initial Angular Momentum of the System
Proof:-- If the external force is radial i.e. tangential force is zero then torque  = 0

dL 
But from equation of motion in rotation motion we know that  
dt

dL
 0 dL=0 i.e. change in angular momentum =0 .Hence L = Constant.
dt
Angular Momentum L= I  = Constant.
1
i.e. I11=I2 2 =I3 3 ……………=Constant or  
I
If the moment of inertia I decreases then  increases and vice versa.
Example: 1. A person holding two weights in his hands stretched outwards is standing on a revolving table.
The table is rotating with angular speed and moment of inertia of the person is I 1.
So initial angular momentum L1= I1 1---------(1)
Now the person pulls his hands inward his moment of inertia(I2) decreases.L2 = L2 2. - - - (2)
Since there is no external torque acting on the system so his angular speed increases according to law of
I 
conservation of angular momentum.I11= I2 2  1  2 ORI1>I2then 2>1.
I 2 1
BA

According to law of conservation of momentum- if moment of inertia decreases then angular velocity  increases
2. An acrobat of a circus leaves the swing with his arms and legs stretched with certain angular momentum due
to moment of inertia (I) and angular velocity. By bringing his arms and closer to his body, he can decrease
moment of inertia. According to law of conservation of momentum- if moment of inertia decreases then
GD

angular velocity increases. The reverse is also true.

3. A driver jumps from a high diving board keeping his leg and hands outstretched. To make a somersault he
curls his body. due to this his moment of inertia (I)decreases and hence angular velocity increases .By doing
this he can make more somersault before entering water.
4. Due to same reason ballet dancer, skaters, ice skaters and gymnast can spin faster by folding their arms.
I

5. Angular velocity of the planets revolving sun increases in an elliptical orbit, when planets come to the sun
and [Link] an ice skater does a spin, the tip of one skate is used as a pivot point, and the skater
begins to spin with her arms outstretched. With the arms far from the body and the
Centre of rotation, the moments of inertia are high. When the skater tucks her arms in, the moments of inertia
are reduced, and the skater begins to rotate more rapidly so that angular momentum is conserved.
EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY:−A rigid body is said to be in mechanical equilibrium, if both
its linear momentum and angular momentum are not changing with time, or equivalently, the body has neither
linear acceleration nor angular acceleration. This means
(1) The total force, i.e. the vector sum of the forces, on the rigid body is zero;
F1F2FnFi0 −−−−−−−−−−−−−(a)
If the total force on the body is zero, then the total linear momentum of the body does not change with time. Eq.
(a) gives the condition for the translational equilibrium of the body.
(2) The total torque, i.e. the vector sum of the torques on the rigid body is zero,
1 2 n i0 −−−−−−−−−−−−−(b)
If the total torque on the rigid body is zero, the total angular momentum of the body does not change with time.
Eq. (b) gives the condition for the rotational equilibrium of thebody.

Bagdi Rotational Motion-11 Bagdi

 Bagdi Rotational Motion-12 Bagdi
A body may be in partial equilibrium, i.e., it may be in translational equilibrium and not in rotational
equilibrium, or it may be in rotational equilibrium and not in translational equilibrium.
Consider a light (i.e. of negligible mass) rod (AB), at the two ends (A and B) of which two parallel forces both
equal in magnitude are applied perpendicular to the rod as shown in Fig a.
Let C be the midpoint of AB, CA = CB = a. the moment of the forces at A and B will both be equal in
magnitude (aF), but opposite in sense as shown. The net moment on the rod will be zero. The system will be in
rotational equilibrium, but it will not be in translational equilibrium; F ≠ 0.
The force at B in Fig. (a) is reversed in Fig. (b). Thus, we have the same rod with two equal and opposite forces

applied perpendicular to the rod, one at end A and the other at end B. Here the moments of both the forces are
equal, but they are not opposite; they act in the same sense and cause anticlockwise rotation of the rod. The
total force on the body is zero; so the body is in translational equilibrium; but it is not in rotational equilibrium.
Although the rod is not fixed in any way, it undergoes pure rotation (i.e. rotation without translation).
Couple:−A pair of equal and opposite forces with different lines of action is known as a couple. A couple
produces rotation without translation.
 = Magnitude of one of the Force × perpendicular distance between the forces.
Principle of moments:− An ideal lever is essentially a light (i.e. of negligible mass) rod pivoted at a point
along its length. This point is called the fulcrum.
A seesawon the children‟s playground is a typical
example of a lever.
Two forces F1 and F2, parallel to each other and
usually perpendicular to the lever, as shown here,
act on the lever at distances d1 and d2respectively
from the fulcrum as shown in [Link] lever is a
BA

system in mechanicalequilibrium. Let R be the

reaction of the support at the fulcrum; R is directed opposite to the forces F1 and F2. For translational
equilibrium,R – F1 – F2 = 0 −−−−−−−−−−−−(i)
For considering rotational equilibrium we take the moments about the fulcrum; the sum of moments must be
zero,d1F1 – d2F2 = 0 −−−−−−−−−−− (ii)
GD

Normally the anticlockwise (clockwise) moments are taken to be positive (negative). NoteR acts at the fulcrum
itself and has zero moment about the [Link] the case of the lever force F1 is usuallysome weight to be
lifted. It is called the loadand its distance from the fulcrum d1 is called the load arm. Force F2 is the
effortapplied to lift the load; distance d2of the effort from the fulcrum is the effort arm.
I

Eq. (ii) can be written asd1F1 = d2F2 or load arm × load = effort arm × effort
The above equation expresses the principle of moments for a lever.

Incidentally the ratioF1/F2 is called the Mechanical Advantage (M.A.);

If the effort arm d2 is larger than the loadarm, the mechanical advantage is greater than one. Mechanical
advantage greater than one means that a small effort can be used to lift a large load. The beam of a balance is a
lever. The principle ofmoment holds even when the parallel forces F1and F2 are not perpendicular, but act at
some angle, to the lever.
Centre of gravity: - Centre of gravity of a body is defined as the point where the whole weight of the body
can be supposed to be concentrated. For ordinary bodies, the centre of mass and centre of gravity coincide with
each other because „g‟ is same.
Take an irregular shaped cardboard and a narrow tipped object like a pencil. Locate by trial and error a point G
on the cardboard where it can be balanced on the tip of the pencil. This point of balance is the centre of gravity
(CG) of the cardboard. The tip of the pencil provides a vertically upward force due to which the cardboard is in
mechanical equilibrium. As shown in the Fig., the reaction of the tip is equal and opposite to Mg, the total
weight of (i.e., the force of gravity on) the cardboard and hence the cardboard is in translational equilibrium.
There are torques on the card board due to the forces of gravity like m1g, m2g …. etc, acting on the individual

Bagdi Rotational Motion-12 Bagdi

 Bagdi Rotational Motion-13 Bagdi
particles that make up the cardboard. The CG of the cardboard is so located that the total torque on it due to the
forces m1g, m2g …. etc. is zero.
If riis the position vector of the ith particle of an extended body with respect to its CG, then the torque about the
CG, due to the force of gravity on the particle is τ i= ri× mig. The total gravitational torque about the CG is
zero, i.e.τg= τi= ri× mig −−−−−−(1)
We may therefore, define the CG of a body as that point where the total gravitational torque on the body is
zero.
We notice that in Eq. (1), g is the same for all particles, and hence it comes out of the summation. This gives,
since g is nonzero,τg= τi= g mi×ri= 0. −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(2)
The position vectors (ri) are taken with respect to the CG.
Eq. (2), if the sum is zero, theorigin must be the centre of mass of the body. Thus, the centre of gravity of the
body coincides with the centre of mass. We note that this is true because the body being small, g does not vary
from one point of the body to the other. If the body is so extended that g varies from part to part of the body,
then the centre of gravity and centre of mass will not coincide. Basically, the two are different concepts. The
centre of mass has nothing to do with gravity. It depends only on the distribution of mass of the body.
Moment of inertia: - The property of a body by virtue of which it wants to remain in its state of rest or
uniform rotatory motion, called moment of inertia. It is a scalar quantity and denoted by [Link] of inertia
depends on − (a) Mass of the body,(b) its shape and size i.e. distribution of mass about the rotation axis and (c)
the position and orientation of the axis of rotation.
Application:− (1) The machines, such as steam engine and the automobile engine, etc., that produce rotational
motion have a disc with a large moment of inertia, called a flywheel. Because of its large moment of inertia,
the flywheel resists the sudden increase or decrease of the speed of the vehicle. It allows a gradual change in
the speed and prevents jerky motions, thereby ensuring a smooth ride for the passengers on the vehicle.
Moment of inertia plays same role in rotatory motion as that mass in translatory
motion. Higher the moment of inertia of a body about an axis, more difficult it is for a couple(torque) to stop it.
Tangential force F=ma-------(1) but a=r
So F=mr---------- (2)
But torque  = r F from eq 2
=rmr Hence  = (m r2)  - - - - - (3)
BA

Comparing equation(1) &(3) the term in bracket corresponds to mass called

moment of [Link] unit kg×m2
For rigid body of n particles of masses m1,m2 - - - - mn rotating about
an axis in X-Y plane.
Perpendicular distances of the particles are r1,r2 - - - - - rn .
GD

So moment of inertia of the body I = m1 r12 +m2 r22 + - - - - + mn rn2.

n
I   m i ri2 Hence moment of inertia of a rigid body about an axis is equal
i 1

to the product of masses of its particle and square of perpendicular distance

I

from the axis is rotation.

Conclusion:- Moment of inertia of a body is not a fixed quantity. It depends of position of the rotation axis .
RADIUS OF GYRATION:- Radius of gyration (K) of an object is defined as the distance from the axis
of rotation at which if whole mass of the body were suppose to be concentrated. The moment of inertia would
be same as with the actual distribution of mass.
For n particle system I=m1r21+m2r22+m3r32---------- + mnr2n.
If mass of the particles is same then, m1=m2=-------------mn=m (let)
I=mr12+mr22+mr32+------- + mrn2.
I=m(r12+r22+r32------------ + rn2) Multiplying and dividing the RHS by n.
r1  r2  r3 - - - - - - - - - - - -  rn2
2 2 2
I  m n( )
n
So moment of inertia of the body I = MK2 where M=mn total mass of the body.
(r  r2  r3 - - - - - - - - - - - -  rn )
2 2 2 2
HereK = 1 radius of gyration of the body about an axis.
n
The radius of gyration of a body about an axismay be defined as the distance from the axis ofa
mass point whose mass is equal to the massof the whole body and whose moment of inertiais equal to the

Bagdi Rotational Motion-13 Bagdi

 Bagdi Rotational Motion-14 Bagdi
moment of inertia of the bodyabout the [Link] root mean square distance of various particles of the body
about rotation axis is called radius of Gyration..
ROTATION KINETIC ENERGY:- Consider a body of n particle of mass m1,m2,m3-- -- -- mn
rotating about any axis AB. Perpendicular distances of the particle from the rotation axis are r 1,r2,r3-- -- -- -rn
and their linear velocities v1,v2,v3-- -- - vn. In rotational motion angular velocity  of all the particle of a
body is same and constant so v1= r1 , v2 = r2 -- -- -- -- -- vn= rn  .
Total kinetic energy of the body Erot= ½ m1v12 + ½ m2 v22 + ½ m3v32 + - - - - + ½ mnvn2
Erot= ½ [ m1 r122 + m2 r222+ m3 r32 2+ - - - - + mn rn2 2 ]
Erot= ½ 2 [ m1 r12 + m2 r22+ m3 r32+ - - - - + mn rn2]
Erot= ½ 2 I Hence, rotational Kinetic energy Erot = ½ I 
2

Here I = m1 r12 + m2 r22+ m3 r32+ - - - - + mn rn2 is moment of inertia of the body.

EXAMPLE OF TWO DIMENSIONAL RIGID BODY MOTION:--
(a)MOTION OF A POINT MASS TIED TO THE STRING WOUNDON A CYLINDER:- Consider a
cylinder of mass m and radius r can be free to rotate about it own axis (in horizontal). A heavy point mass `m‟
is tied to one end of a string which is wound round the cylinder. When the point mass moves downwards the
cylinder rotates, unwinding the string.
If acceleration of point mass is `a‟ and tension of the cylinder is T, then ma=mg -T - - - - (1)
Tension `T‟ act as a tangential force, so the torque on the cylinder
 = r T - - - - -(2) ( Since  = r F)
But  = I  - - - - - - (2) Where I is moment of inertia and  is angular acceleration.
I
Comparing eq 3 &2, r T = I  T  - - - - (4)
r
Linear acceleration a = r  or  = a / r
I a
T   - - - -(5)Putting value in eq1
r r
I a I a
m a  m g    m a  2  mg
r r r
I
BA

m a {1  }m g . Hence acceleration

m r2
g I g
a  &From eq5 tension T  2 
I r 1 I
1
GD

mr 2
m r2
(2)SOLID CYLINDER ROLLING DOWN (WITHOUT SLIPPING) ON AN INCLINED PLANE:--
Consider a cylinder of mass m and radius r rolling down on a plane inclined at an angle  to the horizontal mg
weight act downward. Its component mgsin acts as pulling force and mgcos balance the normal reaction. F is
I

friction. If it is moving with acceleration `a‟ then, m a = m g sin− F - - - - (1)

R = m g Cos - - - - - - (2)
Friction force F act tangentially so torque
 = r F - - - - -(3)
But  = I  - - - - - (4)
Comparing eq 3and 4, r F = I 
I
F  - - - - - (4)
r
Linear acceleration a = r  or = a / r
I a
F   - - - -(5)
r r
Ia Ia
Putting value in eq 1, m a  m g Sin  2
OR ma   m g Sin
r r2
I g Sin
m a[1  ]  m g Sin Hence acceleration a 
m r 2 I
1 
m r2

Bagdi Rotational Motion-14 Bagdi

 Bagdi Rotational Motion-15 Bagdi
For Cylindermoment of inertiaI = m r 2
g Sin 2
a  Hence acceleration a  g Sin
1 m r2 3
1 
2 m r2
1 m r2 2 1
From eq5 Friction F  2
 g Sin  Hence F  m g Sin 
2 r 3 3

Moment of Inertia of different bodies:--

Body Axis passing through Diagram Moment of Inertia
1)Thin rod length L centre and perpendicular 1
to rod of I  M L2
12

2} Rectangular slab centre and perpendicular 1

to its plane I M (l 2  b 2 )
12

3) Circular ring of diameter 1

radius R I M R2
2

4) Circular ring centre and perpendicular I  M L2

to its plane
BA

5) Circular disc 1)centre and 1

perpendicular to the I M R2
4
plane 5
I  M R2
2)Parallel to diameter 4
GD

6) Solid cylinder i)central axis 1

I M R2
2
ii) central diameter 1 1
I  M R2  M l2
I

4 12

7) Solid sphere diameter 2

I M R2
5

PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM:--STATEMENT:-- The moment of inertia of a rigid body about

any axis is equal to moment of inertia of the body about a
parallel axis through its centre of mass (gravity) plus the
product of mass of the body and square of the perpendicular
2
distance between the two parallel axes. I=IG+Mx
I= Moment ofinertia of the body about any given axis.M=
Mass of the body.
IG= Moment of inertia of the body about an axis passing
through centre of gravity and parallel to given axis,
x = Perpendicular distance between the two axes.

Bagdi Rotational Motion-15 Bagdi

 Bagdi Rotational Motion-16 Bagdi
PROOF:--Let P is a particle of mass `m‟ so moment of inertia of the particle about given axis AB is
I = m  OP2 = m ( x + a)2
`a‟ is distance of particle P from centre of gravity G.
Moment of inertia of the whole body about AB is I   I `   m ( x  a ) 2
I   m( x2  2 x a  a2 )   m x2   2 m a x   m a2
I  x 2  m  2 x  m a  I G Here IG = m a2 is moment of inertia of the body about CD
I  x 2  m  2 x  m a  IG Total mass of the body  m  M
Since the body will balance about its centre of gravity. So total torque of the weights of the particle about the
centre of gravity G should be zero i.e.  mg  a  0 or  m a  0 .
I  x 2 M  2 x  0  IG Hence I  M x 2  I G
PERPENDICULAR AXIS THEOREM:--“Moment of inertia of a plane body about an axis
perpendicular to its plane is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia of the body about any two mutually
perpendicular axes in the plane of the body which intersect the given axis.”
IZ=IX+IY
Where IZ= Moment of inertia of the body and an axis perpendicular to the plane body.
IX=Moment of inertia of the body about [Link]=Moment of inertia of the body about y-axis.
PROOF:-- Consider a plane lamina of n particles. OX,OY and OZ are three mutually perpendicular axes
with same point of intersection O. Let P is a particle of mass `m‟
with co-ordinates (x, y). So moment of inertia of the particle about
z-axis I `Z =m OP2.
In triangle OAP OP 2=OA2+AP2
OP2=x2+y2 I `Z =m(x2+y2).
Hence moment of inertia of the whole body about z-axis is
I Z   I `Z   m ( x 2  y 2 ).
I Z   m x 2   m y 2 ). Hence Iz = Iy + Ix
.
BA

EQUATION OF ROTARY MOTION:--

1
(1)    0   t (2)    0 t 
 t .(3)  2  02  2  
2
Torque in Cartesian co-ordinate system: - Consider a body rotates In X-Y plane about point O. At
GD

    
time t=0 position vector of body OP  r 1  x i  y j . If a force F is applied alone PA so that APB =  .
   
After time „t‟ its new position vector is OQ  r 1  ( x  dx) i  ( y  dy) j so displacement is
  
I

d r  dx i  dy j .
Torque can be calculated by work done in rotating a body by a force. Work done by force

Bagdi Rotational Motion-16 Bagdi

 Bagdi Rotational Motion-17 Bagdi
dW  F . dr   Fx i  Fy j  .  dx i  dy j   dW  dx Fx  dy Fy
     
- - - - (1)
   
x y
In ΔOMP Cos   and Sin  
r r
x = r Cos  - - - - (2) Hence y = r Sin  - - - -(3)
Differentiating the equations (3) & (2) with respect to .
dx d d dx
 ( r Cos  )  r ( Cos  ) Hence   r Sin 
d d d d
dx
From equation (3)  y Hence dx = - y d  - - - - (4)
d
dy d d dy
 ( r Sin  )  r ( Sin  ) Hence  r Cos 
d d d d
dy
From equation (3) x Hence dy = x d  - - - - (5)
d
Putting values from eq4 & eq5 in eq1. dW   y. d . Fx  x . d . Fy
dW  ( x . Fy  y . Fx ) d
Since dW = F dS . So in rotational motion the term in the brackets is equivalent to the force in translatory
motion called torque  . dW =  d .
Hence   x . Fy  y . Fx is magnitude of a physical quantity in rotational motion which when multiplied with
angular displacement gives works done called torque.
Torque in Polar co-ordinate system: - Consider a body P rotates In X-Y plane about point O. At time
      
t=0 position vector of body OP  r 1  x i  y j . If a force F is applied on it so that angle between F & r is
APB =  .
BA

 
Angle between r and X-axis is  andangle between F and X-axis
is .
Components of force along X-axis and y-axis are
GD

Fx  F Cos  - - - - -(1) and

Fy  F Sin  - - - - -(2)
x y
In ΔOQP Cos   and Sin  
r r
I

x = r Cos  - - - - (3)
Hence y = r Sin  - - - -(4)
We know the torque in 2-dimensions is   x . Fy  y . Fx
.Putting the values from eq 1 – 4.
  r Cos . F Sin  r Sin . F Cos  r F Cos . Sin  Sin . Cos 
  r F Sin (   ) - - - - - (5) But in triangle OMP exterior
angle is equal to sum of interior opposite angle so  =  + . Hence putting  -  =  in eq5.
Therefore torque   r F Sin .
    
  r F Sin  n Hence vector form of torque is   r F
1) In ΔONP Sin  = d/r so torque  = r F d/r
Hence  = F d = Force × perpendicular distance of the force from the rotational axis.
2)   r F Sin   r F = Distance from rotation axis × Tangential force.

  
   
   

Torque in three Dimensions: -   r  F   x i  y j  z k    i FX  j FY  k FZ 
   

Bagdi Rotational Motion-17 Bagdi

 Bagdi Rotational Motion-18 Bagdi
  
i j k
   
  x y z  i ( y FZ  z FY )  j ( z FX  x FZ )  k ( x FY  y FX )
FX FY FZ

Angular momentum in Cartesian co-ordinate system: -We know that torque in 2D is

  x . Fy  y . Fx - - - - -(1)
 
d pX   d pY
From Newton‟s second laws of motion FX  and F Y 
dt dt

  x.
d pY
 y.
d pX
OR  
d
x p y  y p x 
dt dt dt
dp
If we compare formula from Newton‟s second laws of motion F  .
dt
Where L  x . p y  y . p x is a term in rotational motion which is similar to linear momentum in linear
motion called angular momentum.
dL
  Hence the rate of change of angular momentum with time is equal to the external torque applied on it
dt
, this Newton second law in rotational motion.
Angular momentum in Polar co-ordinate system: -Consider a body P of mass”m”rotates In X-Y
    
plane about point O. At time t=0 position vector of body OP  r 1  x i  y j . If momentum of the body is p
 
so that angle between p & r is  .
 
Angle between r and X-axis is  andangle between p and X-
axis is .
Components of momentum along X-axis and y-axis are
p x  p Cos  - - - - -(1) and
BA

p y  p Sin  - - - - -(2)
x y
In ΔOQP Cos   and Sin  
r r
x = r Cos  - - - - (3)
GD

Hence y = r Sin  - - - -(4)

We know the angular momentum in 2-dimensions is
L  x . p y  y . px .Putting the values from eq 1 – 4.
L  r Cos . p Sin  r Sin . p Cos  r p Cos . Sin  Sin . Cos 
I

L  r p Sin (   ) - - - - - (5) But in triangle OMP exterior

angle is equal to sum of interior opposite angle so  =  + . Hence putting  -  =  in eq5.
Therefore torque L  r p Sin .
    
L  r p Sin n Hence vector form of angular momentum is L  r  p
1) In ΔONP Sin  = d/r so angular momentum L = r p d/r
Hence  = p d = Force × perpendicular distance of the force from the rotational
axis.
2) L  r p Sin  r p = Distance from rotation axis × Tangential force.

SIMPLE PENDULUM:-- Weight of the bob mg act downward and tension of
the string upward. Torque of the bob  = m g × OC - - - - (1)
OC OC
In triangle OBC, Sin    OC  l Sin Putting
OB l
value
 =  m g l Sin  - - - - - (2)Negative sign for restoring torque

Bagdi Rotational Motion-18 Bagdi

 Bagdi Rotational Motion-19 Bagdi
Angular momentum L = l p = l mv But v = r  = l 
L = l m l 
dL d (m l2 ) d d
But torque       m l2 .Here angular momentum  
dt dt dt dt
  m l2  - - - - - (2) Comparing eq1 & 2
g
 m g l Sin  m l 2  Hence    Sin
l

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GD
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Bagdi Rotational Motion-19 Bagdi

 Bagdi Rotational Motion-20 Bagdi

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Bagdi Rotational Motion-20 Bagdi

 Bagdi Rotational Motion-21 Bagdi

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