Feminist Perspective of International Relations

 Examines the relationship between gender, power and politics at global level.
 Examine gender stereotype.
 Challenges the masculine assumption of human nature.
 Feminist perspective to IR emerged out of what is popularly known as “The third
debate” between ‘Positivism and Post-positivism’.
 It Focuses on ending the neglect of women’s perspective in international politics,
giving primacy to the rights of women.

Introduction
Shifting dynamics in the global order following World War II necessitated new approaches to
understanding international Relations (IR).
The emergence of trans-state actors, ethnic conflicts and the peaceful conclusion of the Cold
War highlighted the need to consider multiple actors and institutions beyond the state-centric
view.
One such perspective is the feminist approach to IR, which examines the international arena
through a gendered lens.

Origin of Feminist Perspective of International Relations

The feminist perspective in IR emerged from the “Third Debate” between positivists and post-
positivist scholars in the 1980s.
Positivists believed that IR is a value-neutral field with definitions and structures such as
anarchy and nation state are fixed.

Post-positivists challenged this view and called for critical analysis, pluralism, and diversity in
IR (which till then was dominated by realist and liberal perspectives).
Feminist challenged the masculine assumption of human nature inherent in these perspectives,
arguing that it neglected social reproduction and development as integral aspects of human
nature.
They view the global order as a socially constructed hierarchy that perpetuated gender
subordination.
Feminist criticize the marginalization of women's experiences in war, conflict, and diplomacy.
They argued that women's voices, knowledge, perspectives, and experiences were often
overlooked or subsumed under a male-centric “universal” experience.

Women’s Participation in Discussing War and Conflicts

In international conflict, women are often portrayed as vulnerable and in need of protection,
but this perspective has marginalized them from participating in discussions and processes of
war.
There is a masculinisation of the sphere of war and conflict, where women are made completely
invisible in spite of their active role during war and conflicts such as taking care of wounded
persons and becoming prostitutes to support their war-torn families.
Even within the discourse of protection, the exclusive targeting of women through rape and
sexual violence is seen as an effect of war and not as a key military strategy used by nations
for ethnic cleansing and genocide.

Feminist theories
Feminist theories contribute to the Understanding of Existing Challenges in International
Relations.
Liberal Feminist:
While liberal feminist theory does not fundamentally challenge the traditional ideas of IR, it
questions the content. Liberal feminists look on the role of the gender gap in global politics and
the disproportionate effect of war on women in the form of sexual violence and trafficking.
They call for more female participation in high-level politics and contend that the presence of
more women leaders would facilitate peaceful and humanitarian policies.
Constructivist Feminist:
Constructivist feminist theory looks at how gendered identities play a role in global politics. It
looks at gender as the core component which influences structures and personal relationships.
It places emphasis on the idea of gender and how it upholds unequal global material conditions.
While liberal feminism focuses on achieving formal equality and individual rights for women
within existing structures, constructivist feminism examines how gender is socially
constructed and seeks to transform societal norms and power relations for true equality.
Feminist Post Structuralist:
A feminist post structuralist approach talks about binary linguistic oppositions in IR like
order/anarchy, developed/underdeveloped, national/international etc, which perpetuate
and seek to empower the masculine over the feminine.
They are highly critical of the assertion that more women in high-level diplomatic positions
would lead to pacifist policies as it seeks to further essentialise and reinforce certain
characteristics as feminine.
Postcolonial Feminist:
It seeks to challenge the assumption of universality of women’s experience across regions and
cultures.
It is especially critical of liberal feminists’ approach of looking at women in the Global South
as powerless, lacking agency and helpless or as one homogenous category.

Feminist Approach to IR
Gender Inequality:
The feminist approach highlights the need to address gender disparities and challenges
traditional power structures that perpetuate inequality.
It sheds light on how gender shapes global politics, including issues related to security,
development, and human rights.
Peace and Security:
Feminist scholars and activists have challenged traditional notions of security and broadened
the concept to include human security, which encompasses the well-being and rights of
individuals and communities.
They have highlighted the disproportionate impact of conflicts on women, advocated for
women's inclusion in peace processes, and emphasized the importance of addressing gender-
based violence as a security issue.
Global Governance:
The feminist approach to IR challenges the male-centric nature of global governance and
institutions.
It calls for greater gender equality in decision-making bodies and promotes the inclusion of
women's perspectives and voices in shaping global policies and agendas.
It also pushes for the recognition of care work and the redistribution of resources and power in
more equitable ways.
Transnational Feminism:
The feminist approach to IR recognizes the importance of transnational feminist networks and
movements. It acknowledges the interconnectedness of women's struggles globally and the
need for collective action to address common challenges.
It highlights the significance of cross-border solidarity and cooperation in promoting gender
equality and social justice.

Conferences
Several conferences and published literature marked a new outlook for examining world
events.
Several international conferences also paved the way for highlighting women’s issues. The
important among them were:
1) Mexico Women’s Conference (1975)

2) Copenhagen Women’s Conference (1980),

3) Nairobi Women’s Conference (1985).

Three conferences also boosted the launch of feminist thought into the IR study. They were
the

1) Millennium: Journal of International Studies Conference at the London School of

Economics (1988),
2) The Conference at the University of Southern California (1989), and
3) The Conference at Wellesley (1990).
In 1997, in a debate led by J. Ann Tickner in the International Studies Association’s
International Studies Quarterly, she suggested three types of misunderstanding that were to
be blame for the lack of insight of IR scholars regarding woman’s issues. They are
(1) misunderstandings about the meanings of gender’
(2) different ontologies and
(3) Epistemological divides.

Tickner criticizes realism as only a partial description of international polities, owing to its
deeply embedded masculinist bias. Her main concern is to offer a feminist reformulation of
certain realist principles.
Six reformulated principles are:
1. Human nature is both – Masculinist as well as feminist.
2. Disagreement with the conception of national interest.
3. Power can also be seen in a constructive sense of empowerment.
4. Politics cannot be separated from ethics.
5. Politics cannot be separated from ethics.
6. Reject the autonomy of politics.
Thinkers and Books
THINKERS CONTRIBUTION BOOK
Cynthia Enloe -Critique global as well as U.S Bananas Beaches and Bases-
militarization 1989
-Where are the Women
J. Ann Tickner -Reformulated the six principles of Gender in international
Morgenthau Relations
Carole Cohen Sex and Death

JB Elshtain Women and War

Sandra Whitworth Feminism and International

Relations

Charlotee Hooper Mainly States

Elisabeth Prugl The global construction of

gender
Carol Cohn Women and War

Laura Sjoberg Gender War and Conflict

V. Spike Peterson Gendered States

Chandra Mohanty Post-Colonial feminist Feminism Without Borders

Anne Sisson Runyan Global Gender Issues

Marysia Zalewski The “Man” Question in

International Relations
Jane Parpart The “Man” Question in
International Relations
Claire Duncanson Gender and Peacebuilding

Jacqui True The Political Economy of

Violence Against Women

Criticism of Feminist Theory of IR

Two of the most well-known scholars to raise criticism against feminist approach to IR have
been Robert Keohane and Francis Fukuyama. For Keohane, feminist IR needs to develop
scientific, testifiable theories. Fukuyama questions the feminist scholars’ view that if women
ran the world, we would live in a much more peaceful world, which, to him, is doubtful.
In the face of such criticism, the feminist IR scholars need to develop a much more nuanced
and sophisticated argument order to meet the overwhelming challenge posed by mainstream
theorists.
However, the impact of feminist engagement on politics and on public policies across the world
cannot be denied. That several conventions recognize women’s rights itself is a positive
development. Untiring efforts of the feminist have raised consciousness about gender issue.
Feminists and international lawyers have been successful in getting rape classified, for the first
time, as a war crime, and categorized by the international tribunals on
former Yugoslavia and Rwanda as a form of torture. Sexual discrimination and maltreatment
have been accepted by some countries like Canada and Spain as grounds for political asylum
International non – governmental organizations and also aid agencies involved in providing
assistance to the developing countries have specified in their development policy in general
gender concerns as the centre of their donation policies. Sweden became the first country to
adopt feminist foreign policy. In practice, however, a lot has to be done to increase the level of
gender sensitivity in IR.
 Neo- Marxism
 Emphasizes on political and cultural realm along with the economic realm.
 Concerned with super structure.
 Addressing issues such as exploitation, domination and marginalisation.
 Approaching the issue culturally than just economically and materially.
 New definition of oppressed proletariat.

Introduction
Neo-Marxist theory of international relations builds upon traditional Marxist principles but
incorporates new perspectives and concepts to address contemporary global issues. It emerged
in response to critiques of classical Marxism and seeks to update Marxist analysis for the
complexities of the modern world.
Neo-Marxism is an intellectual approach in International Relations that applies Marxist theory
to the modern global order. It critiques the capitalist system, focusing on the inequalities
perpetuated by global economic structures, the distribution of wealth, and power dynamics
between the global North and South. Neo-Marxists argue that the capitalist world
system exploits poorer, peripheral nations for the benefit of wealthier, core nations. This
approach broadens the understanding of global relations beyond state-to-state interactions,
emphasizing economic factors, class struggles, and social power as central to international
politics.

Core Ideas of Neo-Marxism in IR

Global capitalism is the main driver of international relations:
International politics is shaped by:
 multinational corporations (MNCs)
 global financial institutions
 capitalist class interests
 structural inequality between Global North–South
World is divided into core and periphery:
Borrowed from dependency/world-system theory:
 Core: wealthy, industrial, capitalist states
 Periphery: poor, dependent, resource-exporting states
Core exploits periphery through trade, finance, and technology.
 Semi-Periphery:----
Class relations matter more than state relations:
Neo-Marxists argue class conflict (elite vs working class) is global, not national.
International organizations support capitalism:
Institutions like the IMF, World Bank, WTO preserve capitalist dominance and shape economic
policies in the developing world.
States serve capitalist class interests:
States are not neutral; they act on behalf of:
 domestic capitalist elites
 global corporate networks
 financial institutions

Branches of Neo-Marxist theory in IR

Dependency Theory
Poor countries remain dependent due to:
 unequal trade
 investment patterns
 technology control
Thinkers: Andre Gunder Frank, Paul Baran
World-Systems Theory
World is one capitalist system divided into:
 core
 semi-periphery
 periphery
Thinker: Immanuel Wallerstein
Gramscian/Neo-Gramscian IR
Focuses on:
 hegemony
 ideology
 global capitalist class
Thinkers: Robert Cox, Stephen Gill
“The theory is always for someone and for some purpose” ---(Robert Cox)
Structural Marxism
Emphasizes structural forces (production relations, labour exploitation).
Thinkers: Louis Althusser (influence), Samir Amin.
Features of neo-Marxist theory of international relations
Some key features of neo-Marxist theory of international relations include:
1. Incorporation of Non-Economic Factors: Neo-Marxist scholars acknowledge the
importance of non-economic factors such as culture, identity, and ideology in shaping
international relations. They argue that these factors interact with economic dynamics
to influence state behaviour and global politics.
2. Structural Analysis: Similar to classical Marxism, neo-Marxist theory emphasizes the
structural inequalities inherent in the global capitalist system. Neo-Marxists analyze
power relations between states and social classes within a broader framework of global
capitalism and imperialism.
3. Dependency and World Systems Theory: Neo-Marxists draw on dependency theory
and world systems theory to analyse the unequal relations between core capitalist
countries and peripheral developing countries. They highlight the role of imperialism,
unequal exchange, and exploitation in perpetuating underdevelopment in the Global
South.
4. Critical of Globalization: Neo-Marxist scholars critique globalization as a process that
exacerbates inequalities and reinforces capitalist domination on a global scale. They
analyse how neoliberal economic policies and transnational corporations contribute to
the marginalization of workers and the erosion of state sovereignty.
5. Focus on Resistance and Social Movements: Neo-Marxist theory emphasizes the
agency of marginalized groups and social movements in challenging capitalist
hegemony and promoting alternative visions of global order. They study how grassroots
movements, labour unions, and anti-capitalist struggles resist domination and advocate
for social justice and equality.
Overall, neo-Marxist theory of international relations offers a critical perspective on
contemporary global issues, combining insights from classical Marxism with new approaches
to address the complexities of the modern world.

Proponents of Neo-Marxist theory

Several scholars have contributed to the development and popularization of neo-Marxist theory
in international relations. Some notable proponents include:
1. Immanuel Wallerstein: Wallerstein’s world-systems theory is a foundational concept
within neo-Marxist international relations. He analyses the global capitalist system as
a single unit characterized by core-periphery relations, emphasizing the role of
imperialism and unequal exchange in perpetuating global inequalities.
2. Samir Amin: Amin’s work on dependency theory has been influential in neo-Marxist
analyses of underdevelopment and imperialism. He examines the structural constraints
imposed by the global capitalist system on developing countries and advocates for
alternative paths to development.
3. Andre Gunder Frank: Frank is known for his contributions to dependency theory and
world systems theory. He argues that the global economy is characterized by unequal
 relations between core capitalist countries and peripheral regions, with the latter serving
as sources of cheap labour and resources for the former.
4. Robert Cox: Cox’s critical theory approach to international relations incorporates
Marxist insights into his analysis of global politics. He emphasizes the role of ideology,
power structures, and social forces in shaping international relations, advocating for
transformative change to address global inequalities.
5. David Harvey: Harvey’s work on uneven development and the spatial dynamics of
capitalism has been influential in neo-Marxist analyses of globalization. He explores
how capitalist processes shape urbanization, environmental degradation, and social
inequalities on a global scale.
These scholars, among others, have contributed to the development of neo-Marxist theory in
international relations, offering critical perspectives on global capitalism, imperialism, and
social change.

Characteristics of Neo-Marxist theory

1. Structural Analysis: Neo-Marxist theory emphasizes the structural inequalities
inherent in the global capitalist system, analysing power relations between states and
social classes within this framework.
2. Dependency Theory: Neo-Marxists draw on dependency theory to examine the
unequal relations between core capitalist countries and peripheral developing countries,
highlighting the role of imperialism and exploitation in perpetuating
underdevelopment.
3. World-Systems Theory: Building on dependency theory, neo-Marxists like Immanuel
Wallerstein analyze the global economy as a single unit characterized by core-periphery
relations, where peripheral regions serve as sources of cheap labor and resources for
core capitalist countries.
4. Critique of Globalization: Neo-Marxists critique globalization as a process that
exacerbates inequalities and reinforces capitalist domination on a global scale,
examining how neoliberal economic policies and transnational corporations contribute
to these dynamics.
5. Historical Materialism: Neo-Marxists apply historical materialism to international
relations, analysing how economic structures and relations of production shape state
behaviour and global politics.
6. Cultural Hegemony: Neo-Marxists like Antonio Gramsci explore the concept of
cultural hegemony, examining how dominant ideologies and cultural norms influence
international relations and perpetuate capitalist hegemony.
7. Social Movements and Resistance: Neo-Marxist theory emphasizes the agency of
marginalized groups and social movements in challenging capitalist domination and
advocating for social justice and equality on a global scale.
8. Uneven Development: Building on David Harvey’s work, neo-Marxists analyze
uneven development within and between nations, exploring how capitalist processes
shape urbanization, environmental degradation, and social inequalities.
 9. State Capitalism: Some neo-Marxists analyze state capitalism as a form of capitalism
where the state plays a central role in managing the economy and maintaining capitalist
relations of production, particularly in authoritarian regimes.
10. Alternative Visions of Global Order: Neo-Marxist theory promotes alternative
visions of global order based on principles of social justice, equality, and collective
ownership of the means of production, advocating for transformative change to address
global inequalities and exploitation.

Thinkers and Books:

THINKERS CONTRIBUTION BOOK
Paul Baran Underdevelopment caused by capitalist The Political Economy of
penetration Growth
Andre Gunder Frank Dependency theory -Capitalism and
Underdevelopment in Latin
America
-Dependent Accumulation and
Underdevelopment

Immanuel Wallerstein World-systems theory - The Modern World-System

- World-Systems Analysis
Samir Amin Unequal development - Accumulation on a World
Scale
- Eurocentrism
- Unequal Development
Robert Cox -Neo-Gramscian IR; hegemony, - Production, Power and World
historical structures Order
-Cox differentiate between ‘Problem - Approaches to World Order
Solving’ vs ‘Critical theory’
Stephen Gill Globalisation, disciplinary - Power and Resistance in the
neoliberalism New World Order
- Globalisation,
Democratisation and
Multilateralism
Giovanni Arrighi - The Long Twentieth Century
- Chaos and Governance in the
Modern World System
Antonio Gramsci Foundation of Neo-Marxism Prison Notebooks
Cultural hegemony
Louis Althusser Concept of ideological state apparatuses

Herbert Marcuse -Capitalism creates a false -One dimensional man

consciousness -Eros and Civilization
-Psychological problems of capitalism
Ralph Miliband Focuses over the managerial class State in Capital Society

Nicos Poulantzas Focusing over the structures of society Political power and Social
Class
Habermas -Technological advancement is
changing human being in machine
-Emancipation (through
communication).
 - Discourse Ethics

Andrew Linklater -Expansion of the Moral boundaries Transformation of Political

- Linklater gave Normative Approach Community
in Critical theory
- He says European Union (EU) is an
example of Post Westphalia
Community.

Merits
Merits of Neo-Marxist Theory of International Relations:
1. Structural Analysis of Global Inequality: Neo-Marxist theory provides a
comprehensive structural analysis of global inequalities, emphasizing the role of
capitalism, imperialism, and dependency in perpetuating uneven development between
nations.
2. Critical Perspective on Globalization: Neo-Marxist scholars offer a critical
perspective on globalization, highlighting its detrimental effects on marginalized
communities, labour rights, and environmental sustainability. They challenge neoliberal
narratives of progress and economic growth.
3. Focus on Agency and Resistance: Neo-Marxist theory emphasizes the agency of
oppressed groups and social movements in challenging capitalist domination and
advocating for social justice and equality on a global scale. This perspective highlights
the potential for grassroots mobilization and collective action to effect change.
4. Intersectionality and Cultural Hegemony: Neo-Marxists integrate concepts such as
cultural hegemony and intersectionality into their analysis, recognizing the importance
of cultural norms, identities, and power structures in shaping international relations.
This broader perspective enhances understanding of the complexities of global politics.
5. Alternative Visions of Global Order: Neo-Marxist theory promotes alternative
visions of global order based on principles of social justice, equality, and collective
ownership of the means of production. By envisioning alternatives to capitalism and
imperialism, it inspires efforts to build a more equitable and sustainable world.

Demerits:
Certainly, here are five demerits or criticisms of Neo-Marxist Theory of International
Relations:
1. Overemphasis on Economic Determinism: Critics argue that Neo-Marxist theory
sometimes tends to overemphasize economic factors and structural determinism,
neglecting the influence of non-economic factors such as culture, identity, and ideology
in shaping international relations.
2. Simplistic Core-Periphery Model: Some critics contend that the core-periphery model
in world-systems theory oversimplifies the complexities of global dynamics and
ignores the diversity of experiences within regions categorized as core or periphery.
3. Limited Predictive Power: Neo-Marxist theory has been criticized for its limited
predictive power in explaining and anticipating specific events or developments in
 international relations. Its focus on broad structural forces may not always provide clear
insights into the dynamics of particular conflicts or diplomatic interactions.
4. Neglect of State Agency: Critics argue that Neo-Marxist theory sometimes neglects the
agency of states and state actors in international relations, focusing excessively on
structural constraints and economic imperatives. This oversight may underestimate the
role of states in shaping global politics and pursuing their own interests.
5. Ethnocentrism and Eurocentrism: Some scholars argue that Neo-Marxist theory, like
its classical Marxist predecessor, exhibits ethnocentric and Eurocentric biases,
privileging the experiences and perspectives of Western societies and overlooking
alternative forms of capitalism, imperialism, and resistance in non-Western contexts.