Number System

In a digital system, the system can understand only the optional number system. In these
systems, digits symbols are used to represent different values, depending on the index from
which it settled in the number system.

In simple terms, for representing the information, we use the number system in the digital
system.

The digit value in the number system is calculated using:

1. The digit
2. The index, where the digit is present in the number.
3. Finally, the base numbers, the total number of digits available in the number system.

Note: When the number system represents a digit from 0 - 9, the base of the number will
be 10.

Types of Number System

In the digital computer, there are various types of number systems used for representing
information.

1. Binary Number System

2. Decimal Number System
3. Hexadecimal Number System
4. Octal Number System

Binary Number System

Generally, a binary number system is used in the digital computers. In this number system,
it carries only two digits, either 0 or 1. There are two types of electronic pulses present in a
binary number system. The first one is the absence of an electronic pulse representing
'0'and second one is the presence of electronic pulse representing '1'. Each digit is known as
a bit. A four-bit collection (1101) is known as a nibble, and a collection of eight bits
(11001010) is known as a byte. The location of a digit in a binary number represents a
specific power of the base (2) of the number system.

Characteristics:

1. It holds only two values, i.e., either 0 or 1.

2. It is also known as the base 2 number system.
3. The position of a digit represents the 0 power of the base(2). Example: 2 0
4. The position of the last digit represents the x power of the base(2). Example: 2 x,
where x represents the last position, i.e., 1

Examples:

(10100)2, (11011)2, (11001)2, (000101)2, (011010)2.

Decimal Number System

The decimal numbers are used in our day to day life. The decimal number system contains
ten digits from 0 to 9(base 10). Here, the successive place value or position, left to the
decimal point holds units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on.

The position in the decimal number system specifies the power of the base (10). The 0 is the
minimum value of the digit, and 9 is the maximum value of the digit. For example, the
decimal number 2541 consist of the digit 1 in the unit position, 4 in the tens position, 5 in
the hundreds position, and 2 in the thousand positions and the value will be written as:

(2×1000) + (5×100) + (4×10) + (1×1)

(2×103) + (5×102) + (4×101) + (1×100)
2000 + 500 + 40 + 1
2541

Octal Number System

The octal number system has base 8(means it has only eight digits from 0 to 7). There are
only eight possible digit values to represent a number. With the help of only three bits, an
octal number is represented. Each set of bits has a distinct value between 0 and 7.

Below, we have described certain characteristics of the octal number system:

Characteristics:

1. An octal number system carries eight digits starting from 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.

2. It is also known as the base 8 number system.
 3. The position of a digit represents the 0 power of the base(8). Example: 8 0
4. The position of the last digit represents the x power of the base(8). Example: 8 x,
where x represents the last position, i.e., 1

Number Octal Number

0 000
1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111

Examples:

(273)8, (5644)8, (0.5365)8, (1123)8, (1223)8.

Hexadecimal Number System

It is another technique to represent the number in the digital system called the hexadecimal
number system. The number system has a base of 16 means there are total 16 symbols(0, 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F) used for representing a number. The single-bit
representation of decimal values10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 are represented by A, B, C, D, E,
and F. Only 4 bits are required for representing a number in a hexadecimal number. Each set
of bits has a distinct value between 0 and 15. There are the following characteristics of the
octal number system:

Characteristics:

1. It has ten digits from 0 to 9 and 6 letters from A to F.

2. The letters from A to F defines numbers from 10 to 15.
3. It is also known as the base 16number system.
4. In hexadecimal number, the position of a digit represents the 0 power of the
base(16). Example: 160
5. In hexadecimal number, the position of the last digit represents the x power of the
base(16). Example: 16x, where x represents the last position, i.e., 1

Binary Number Hexadecimal Number

0000 0
0001 1
0010 2
0011 3
0100 4
0101 5
0110 6
0111 7
1000 8
1001 9
1010 A
1011 B
1100 C
1101 D
1110 E
1111 F

Examples:

(FAC2)16, (564)16, (0ABD5)16, (1123)16, (11F3)16.

Number Base Conversion
In our previous section, we learned different types of number systems such as binary,
decimal, octal, and hexadecimal. In this part of the tutorial, we will learn how we can
change a number from one number system to another number system.

As, we have four types of number systems so each one can be converted into the remaining
three systems. There are the following conversions possible in Number System

1. Binary to other Number Systems.

2. Decimal to other Number Systems.
3. Octal to other Number Systems.
4. Hexadecimal to other Number Systems.

Binary to other Number Systems

There are three conversions possible for binary number, i.e., binary to decimal, binary to
octal, and binary to hexadecimal. The conversion process of a binary number to decimal
differs from the remaining others. Let's take a detailed discussion on Binary Number System
conversion.

Binary to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting binary to decimal is quite simple. The process starts from
multiplying the bits of binary number with its corresponding positional weights. And lastly,
we add all those products.
Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from binary to decimal.

Example 1: (10110.001)2

We multiplied each bit of (10110.001)2 with its respective positional weight, and last we add
the products of all the bits with its weight.

(10110.001)2=(1×24)+(0×23)+(1×22)+(1×21)+(0×20)+
(0×2-1)+(0×2-2)+(1×2-3)
(10110.001)2=(1×16)+(0×8)+(1×4)+(1×2)+(0×1)+
(0×1⁄2)+(0×1⁄4)+(1×1⁄8)
(10110.001)2=16+0+4+2+0+0+0+0.125
(10110.001)2=(22.125 )10

Binary to Octal Conversion

The base numbers of binary and octal are 2 and 8, respectively. In a binary number, the pair
of three bits is equal to one octal digit. There are only two steps to convert a binary number
into an octal number which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we have to make the pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary
point. If there will be one or two bits left in a pair of three bits pair, we add the
required number of zeros on extreme sides.
2. In the second step, we write the octal digits corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (111110101011.0011)2

1. Firstly, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.

111 110 101 011.001 1

On the right side of the binary point, the last pair has only one bit. To make it a complete
pair of three bits, we added two zeros on the extreme side.

111 110 101 011.001 100

2. Then, we wrote the octal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(111110101011.0011)2=(7653.14)8

Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

The base numbers of binary and hexadecimal are 2 and 16, respectively. In a binary number,
the pair of four bits is equal to one hexadecimal digit. There are also only two steps to
convert a binary number into a hexadecimal number which are as follows:
 1. In the first step, we have to make the pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary
point. If there will be one, two, or three bits left in a pair of four bits pair, we add the
required number of zeros on extreme sides.
2. In the second step, we write the hexadecimal digits corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (10110101011.0011)2

1. Firstly, we make pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point.

111 1010 1011.0011

On the left side of the binary point, the first pair has three bits. To make it a complete pair
of four bits, add one zero on the extreme side.

0111 1010 1011.0011

2. Then, we write the hexadecimal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(011110101011.0011)2=(7AB.3)16

Decimal to other Number System

The decimal number can be an integer or floating-point integer. When the decimal number
is a floating-point integer, then we convert both part (integer and fractional) of the decimal
number in the isolated form(individually). There are the following steps that are used to
convert the decimal number into a similar number of any base 'r'.

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on integer and successive part
with base 'r'. We will list down all the remainders till the quotient is zero. Then we
find out the remainders in reverse order for getting the integer part of the
equivalent number of base 'r'. In this, the least and most significant digits are
denoted by the first and the last remainders.
2. In the next step, the multiplication operation is done with base 'r' of the fractional
and successive fraction. The carries are noted until the result is zero or when the
required number of the equivalent digit is obtained. For getting the fractional part of
the equivalent number of base 'r', the normal sequence of carrying is considered.

Decimal to Binary Conversion

For converting decimal to binary, there are two steps required to perform, which are as
follows:

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive
quotient with the base of binary(2).
2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with
the base of binary(2).
Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 2.

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/2 76 0 (LSB)
76/2 38 0
38/2 19 0
19/2 9 1
9/2 4 1
4/2 2 0
2/2 1 0
1/2 0 1(MSB)

(152)10=(10011000)2

Step 2:

Now, perform the multiplication of 0.27 and successive fraction with base 2.

Operation Result carry

0.25×2 0.50 0
0.50×2 0 1

(0.25)10=(.01)2

Decimal to Octal Conversion

For converting decimal to octal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as
follows:

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive
quotient with the base of octal(8).
2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with
the base of octal(8).

Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 8.

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/8 19 0
19/8 2 3
2/8 0 2

(152)10=(230)8

Step 2:

Now perform the multiplication of 0.25 and successive fraction with base 8.

Operation Result carry

0.25×8 0 2

(0.25)10=(2)8

So, the octal number of the decimal number 152.25 is 230.2

Decimal to hexadecimal conversion

For converting decimal to hexadecimal, there are two steps required to perform, which are
as follows:

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive
quotient with the base of hexadecimal (16).
2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with
the base of hexadecimal (16).

Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 8.

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/16 9 8
9/16 0 9

(152)10=(98)16

Step 2:

Now perform the multiplication of 0.25 and successive fraction with base 16.

Operation Result carry

0.25×16 0 4
(0.25)10=(4)16

So, the hexadecimal number of the decimal number 152.25 is 230.4.

Octal to other Number System

Like binary and decimal, the octal number can also be converted into other number
systems. The process of converting octal to decimal differs from the remaining one. Let's
start understanding how conversion is done.

Octal to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting octal to decimal is the same as binary to decimal. The process
starts from multiplying the digits of octal numbers with its corresponding positional weights.
And lastly, we add all those products.

Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from octal to decimal.

Example 1: (152.25)8

Step 1:

We multiply each digit of 152.25 with its respective positional weight, and last we add the
products of all the bits with its weight.

(152.25)8=(1×82)+(5×81)+(2×80)+(2×8-1)+(5×8-2)
(152.25)8=64+40+2+(2×1⁄8)+(5×1⁄64)
(152.25)8=64+40+2+0.25+0.078125
(152.25)8=106.328125

So, the decimal number of the octal number 152.25 is 106.328125

Octal to Binary Conversion

The process of converting octal to binary is the reverse process of binary to octal. We write
the three bits binary code of each octal number digit.

Example 1: (152.25)8

We write the three-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, and 5.

(152.25)8=(001101010.010101)2

So, the binary number of the octal number 152.25 is (001101010.010101)2

Octal to hexadecimal conversion

For converting octal to hexadecimal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as
follows:

1. In the first step, we will find the binary equivalent of number 25.
2. Next, we have to make the pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point. If
there will be one, two, or three bits left in a pair of four bits pair, we add the
required number of zeros on extreme sides and write the hexadecimal digits
corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (152.25)8

Step 1:

We write the three-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, and 5.

(152.25)8=(001101010.010101)2

So, the binary number of the octal number 152.25 is (001101010.010101)2

Step 2:

1. Now, we make pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point.

0 0110 1010.0101 01

On the left side of the binary point, the first pair has only one digit, and on the right side, the
last pair has only two-digit. To make them complete pairs of four bits, add zeros on extreme
sides.

0000 0110 1010.0101 0100

2. Now, we write the hexadecimal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(0000 0110 1010.0101 0100)2=(6A.54)16

Hexa-decimal to other Number System

Like binary, decimal, and octal, hexadecimal numbers can also be converted into other
number systems. The process of converting hexadecimal to decimal differs from the
remaining one. Let's start understanding how conversion is done.

Hexa-decimal to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting hexadecimal to decimal is the same as binary to decimal. The
process starts from multiplying the digits of hexadecimal numbers with its corresponding
positional weights. And lastly, we add all those products.
Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from hexadecimal to
decimal.

Example 1: (152A.25)16

Step 1:

We multiply each digit of 152A.25 with its respective positional weight, and last we add the
products of all the bits with its weight.

(152A.25)16=(1×163)+(5×162)+(2×161)+(A×160)+(2×16-1)+(5×16-2)
(152A.25)16=(1×4096)+(5×256)+(2×16)+(10×1)+(2×16-1)+(5×16-2)
(152A.25)16=4096+1280+32+10+(2×1⁄16)+(5×1⁄256)
(152A.25)16=5418+0.125+0.125
(152A.25)16=5418.14453125

So, the decimal number of the hexadecimal number 152A.25 is 5418.14453125

Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

The process of converting hexadecimal to binary is the reverse process of binary to

hexadecimal. We write the four bits binary code of each hexadecimal number digit.

Example 1: (152A.25)16

We write the four-bit binary digit for 1, 5, A, 2, and 5.

(152A.25)16=(0001 0101 0010 1010.0010 0101)2

So, the binary number of the hexadecimal number 152.25 is (1010100101010.00100101)2

Hexadecimal to Octal Conversion

For converting hexadecimal to octal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as
follows:

1. In the first step, we will find the binary equivalent of the hexadecimal number.
2. Next, we have to make the pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point. If
there will be one or two bits left in a pair of three bits pair, we add the required
number of zeros on extreme sides and write the octal digits corresponding to each
pair.

Example 1: (152A.25)16

Step 1:

We write the four-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, A, and 5.

(152A.25)16=(0001 0101 0010 1010.0010 0101)2

So, the binary number of hexadecimal number 152A.25 is (0011010101010.010101)2

Step 2:

3. Then, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.

001 010 100 101 010.001 001 010

4. Then, we write the octal digit, which corresponds to each pair.

(001010100101010.001001010)2=(12452.112)8

So, the octal number of the hexadecimal number 152A.25 is 12452.112

Gray Code
The Gray Code is a sequence of binary number systems, which is also known as reflected
binary code. The reason for calling this code as reflected binary code is the first N/2 values
compared with those of the last N/2 values in reverse order. In this code, two consecutive
values are differed by one bit of binary digits. Gray codes are used in the general sequence
of hardware-generated binary numbers. These numbers cause ambiguities or errors when
the transition from one number to its successive is done. This code simply solves this
problem by changing only one bit when the transition is between numbers is done.

The gray code is a very light weighted code because it doesn't depend on the value of the
digit specified by the position. This code is also called a cyclic variable code as the transition
of one value to its successive value carries a change of one bit only.

How to generate Gray code?

The prefix and reflect method are recursively used to generate the Gray code of a number.
For generating gray code:

1. We find the number of bits required to represent a number.

2. Next, we find the code for 0, i.e., 0000, which is the same as binary.
3. Now, we take the previous code, i.e., 0000, and change the most significant bit of it.
4. We perform this process reclusively until all the codes are not uniquely identified.
5. If by changing the most significant bit, we find the same code obtained previously,
then the second most significant bit will be changed, and so on.

Process of generating Gray Code

Gray Code Table

Decimal Number Binary Number Gray Code

0 0000 0000
1 0001 0001
2 0010 0011
3 0011 0010
4 0100 0110
5 0101 0111
6 0110 0101
7 0111 0100
8 1000 1100
9 1001 1101
10 1010 1111
11 1011 1110
12 1100 1010
13 1101 1011
14 1110 1001
15 1111 1000
Excess-3 Code
The excess-3 code is also treated as XS-3 code. The excess-3 code is a non-weighted and
self-complementary BCD code used to represent the decimal numbers. This code has a
biased representation. This code plays an important role in arithmetic operations because it
resolves deficiencies encountered when we use the 8421 BCD code for adding two decimal
digits whose sum is greater than 9. The Excess-3 code uses a special type of algorithm,
which differs from the binary positional number system or normal non-biased BCD.

We can easily get an excess-3 code of a decimal number by simply adding 3 to each decimal
digit. And then we write the 4-bit binary number for each digit of the decimal number. We
can find the excess-3 code of the given binary number by using the following steps:

1. We find the decimal number of the given binary number.

2. Then we add 3 in each digit of the decimal number.
3. Now, we find the binary code of each digit of the newly generated decimal number.

We can also add 0011 in each 4-bit BCD code of the decimal number for getting excess-3
code.

The Excess-3 code for the decimal number is as follows:

Decimal Digit BCD Code Excess-3 Code

0 0000 0011
1 0001 0100
2 0010 0101
3 0011 0110
4 0100 0111
5 0101 1000
6 0110 1001
7 0111 1010
8 1000 1011
9 1001 1100

In excess-3 code, the codes 1111 and 0000 are never used for any decimal digit. Let's take
some examples of Excess-3 code.

Example 1: Decimal number 31

1. We find the BCD code of each digit of the decimal number.

Digit BCD
3 0011
1 0001

2) Then, we add 0011 in both of the BCD code.

Decimal BCD Excess-3

3 0011+0011 0110
1 0001+0011 0100

3. So, the excess-3 code of the decimal number 31 is 0110 0100

Example 2: Decimal number 81.61

1. We find the BCD code of each digit of the decimal number.

Digit BCD
8 1000
1 0001
6 0110
1 0001

2) Then, we add 0011 in both of the BCD code.

Decimal BCD Excess-3

8 1000+0011 1011
1 0001+0011 0100
6 0110+0011 1001

3) So, the excess-3 code of the decimal number 81.61 is 1011 0100.1001 0100

Self-complementary property

A self-complementary binary code is a code which is always complimented in itself. By

replacing the bit 0 to 1 and 1 to 0 of a number, we find the 1's complement of the number.
The sum of the 1'st complement and the binary number of a decimal is equal to the binary
number of decimal 9.

Note: if we perform the 1's complement of excess-3 of a decimal number, it will be equal
to the excess-3 code of the 9's complement of that decimal number.

For example: If we perform 1's complement of the excess-3 code 1000(decimal 5),
complement value will be 0111, which is the excess-3 code of 9's complement of 5, i.e.,
4(0111).

Why use Excess-3 code?

There are the following advantages of excess-3 code which make it required to use:

1. These codes are self-complementary.

2. These codes use biased representation.
3. The excess-3 code has no limitation, so that it considerably simplifies arithmetic
operations.
4. The codes 0000 and 1111 can cause a fault in the transmission line. The excess-3
code doesn't use these codes and gives an advantage for memory organization.
5. These codes are usually unweighted binary decimal codes.
6. This code has a vital role in arithmetic operations. It is because it resolves
deficiencies which are encountered when we use the 8421 BCD code for adding two
decimal digits whose sum is greater than 9.
Signed and Unsigned Binary Numbers
The integer variables are represented in a signed and unsigned manner. The positive and
negative values are differentiated by using the sign flag in signed numbers. The unsigned
numbers do not use any flag for the sign, i.e., only positive numbers can be stored by the
unsigned numbers.

It is very easy to represent positive and negative numbers in our day to day life. We
represent the positive numbers without adding any sign before them and the negative
number with - (minus) sign before them. But in the digital system, it is not possible to use
negative sign before them because the data is in binary form in digital computers. For
representing the sign in binary numbers, we require a special notation.

Binary Numbers Representation

Our computer can understand only (0, 1) language. The binary numbers are represented in
both ways, i.e., signed and unsigned. The positive numbers are represented in both ways-
signed and unsigned, but the negative numbers can only be described in a signed way. The
difference between unsigned and signed numbers is that unsigned numbers do not use any
sign bit for positive and negative numbers identification, but the signed number used.

Unsigned Numbers

As we already know, the unsigned numbers don't have any sign for representing negative
numbers. So the unsigned numbers are always positive. By default, the decimal number
representation is positive. We always assume a positive sign in front of each decimal digit.
There is no sign bit in unsigned binary numbers so it can only represent its magnitude. In
zero and one, zero is an unsigned binary number. There is only one zero (0) in this
representation, which is always positive. Because of one unique binary equivalent form of a
number in unsigned number representation, it is known as unambiguous representation
technique. The range of the unsigned binary numbers starts from 0 to (2 n-1).

Example: Represent the decimal number 102 in unsigned binary numbers.

We will change this decimal number into binary, which has the only magnitude of the given
name.

Decimal Operation Result Remainder

102 102/2 51 0
51 51/2 25 1
25 25/2 12 1
12 12/2 6 0
6 6/2 3 0
3 3/2 1 1
1 1/2 0 1

So the binary number of (102)10 is (1100110)2, a 7-bit magnitude of the decimal number
102.

Signed Numbers

The signed numbers have a sign bit so that it can differentiate positive and negative integer
numbers. The signed binary number technique has both the sign bit and the magnitude of
the number. For representing the negative decimal number, the corresponding symbol in
front of the binary number will be added.

The signed numbers are represented in three ways. The signed bit makes two possible
representations of zero (positive (0) and negative (1)), which is an ambiguous
representation. The third representation is 2's complement representation in which no
double representation of zero is possible, which makes it unambiguous representation.
There are the following types of representation of signed binary numbers:

1. Sign-Magnitude form
In this form, a binary number has a bit for a sign symbol. If this bit is set to 1, the
number will be negative else the number will be positive if it is set to 0. Apart from
this sign-bit, the n-1 bits represent the magnitude of the number.
2. 1's Complement
By inverting each bit of a number, we can obtain the 1's complement of a number.
The negative numbers can be represented in the form of 1's complement. In this
form, the binary number also has an extra bit for sign representation as a sign-
magnitude form.
3. 2's Complement
By inverting each bit of a number and adding plus 1 to its least significant bit, we can
obtain the 2's complement of a number. The negative numbers can also be
represented in the form of 2's complement. In this form, the binary number also has
an extra bit for sign representation as a sign-magnitude form.
1's complement
In number representation techniques, the binary number system is the most used
representation technique in digital electronics. The complement is used for representing the
negative decimal number in binary form. Different types of complement are possible of the
binary number, but 1's and 2's complements are mostly used for binary numbers. We can
find the 1's complement of the binary number by simply inverting the given number. For
example, 1's complement of binary number 1011001 is 0100110. We can find the 2's
complement of the binary number by changing each bit(0 to 1 and 1 to 0) and adding 1 to
the least significant bit. For example, 2's complement of binary number 1011001 is
(0100110)+1=0100111.

For finding 1's complement of the binary number, we can implement the logic circuit also by
using NOT gate. We use NOT gate for each bit of the binary number. So, if we want to
implement the logic circuit for 5-bit 1's complement, five NOT gates will be used.

Example 1: 11010.1101

For finding 1's complement of the given number, change all 0's to 1 and all 1's to 0. So the
1's complement of the number 11010.1101 comes out 00101.0010.

Example 2: 100110.1001

For finding 1's complement of the given number, change all 0's to 1 and all 1's to 0. So, the
1's complement of the number 100110.1001 comes out 011001.0110.

1's Complement Table

Binary Number 1's Complement

0000 1111
0001 1110
0010 1101
0011 1100
0100 1011
0101 1010
0110 1001
0111 1000
1000 0111
1001 0110
1010 0101
1011 0100
1100 0011
1101 0010
1110 0001
1111 0000

Use of 1's complement

1's complement plays an important role in representing the signed binary numbers. The
main use of 1's complement is to represent a signed binary number. Apart from this, it is
also used to perform various arithmetic operations such as addition and subtraction.

In signed binary number representation, we can represent both positive and negative
numbers. For representing the positive numbers, there is nothing to do. But for
representing negative numbers, we have to use 1's complement technique. For
representing the negative number, we first have to represent it with a positive sign, and
then we find the 1's complement of it.

Let's take an example of a positive and negative number and see how these numbers are
represented.

Example 1: +6 and -6

The number +6 is represented as same as the binary number. For representing both
numbers, we will take the 5-bit register.

So the +6 is represented in the 5-bit register as 0 0110.

The -6 is represented in the 5-bit register in the following way:

1. +6=0 0110
2. Find the 1's complement of the number 0 0110, i.e., 1 1001. Here, MSB denotes that
a number is a negative number.
Here, MSB refers to Most Significant Bit, and LSB denotes the Least Significant Bit.

Example 2: +120 and -120

The number +120 is represented as same as the binary number. For representing both
numbers, take the 8-bit register.

So the +120 is represented in the 8-bit register as 0 1111000.

The -120 is represented in the 8-bit register in the following way:

1. +120=0 1111000
2. Now, find the 1's complement of the number 0 1111000, i.e., 1 0000111. Here, the
MSB denotes the number is the negative number.
2's complement
Just like 1's complement, 2's complement is also used to represent the signed binary
numbers. For finding 2's complement of the binary number, we will first find the 1's
complement of the binary number and then add 1 to the least significant bit of it.

For example, if we want to calculate the 2's complement of the number 1011001, then
firstly, we find the 1's complement of the number that is 0100110 and add 1 to the LSB. So,
by adding 1 to the LSB, the number will be (0100110)+1=0100111. We can also create the
logic circuit using OR, AND, and NOT gates. The logic circuit for finding 2's complement of
the 5-bit binary number is as follows:

Example 1: 110100

For finding 2's complement of the given number, change all 0's to 1 and all 1's to 0. So the
1's complement of the number 110100 is 001011. Now add 1 to the LSB of this number, i.e.,
(001011)+1=001100.

Example 2: 100110

For finding 1's complement of the given number, change all 0's to 1 and all 1's to 0. So, the
1's complement of the number 100110 is 011001. Now add one the LSB of this number, i.e.,
(011001)+1=011010.

2's Complement Table

Binary Number 1's Complement 2's complement

0000 1111 0000
0001 1110 1111
0010 1101 1110
0011 1100 1101
0100 1011 1100
0101 1010 1011
0110 1001 1010
0111 1000 1001
1000 0111 1000
1001 0110 0111
1010 0101 0110
1011 0100 0101
1100 0011 0100
1101 0010 0011
1110 0001 0010
1111 0000 0001

Use of 2's complement

2's complement is used for representing signed numbers and performing arithmetic
operations such as subtraction, addition, etc. The positive number is simply represented as a
magnitude form. So there is nothing to do for representing positive numbers. But if we
represent the negative number, then we have to choose either 1's complement or 2's
complement technique. The 1's complement is an ambiguous technique, and 2's
complement is an unambiguous technique. Let's see an example to understand how we can
calculate the 2's complement in signed binary number representation.

Example 1: +6 and -6

The number +6 is represented as same as the binary number. For representing both
numbers, take the 5-bit register.

So the +6 is represented in the 5-bit register as 0 0110.

The -6 is represented in the 5-bit register in the following way:

1. +6=0 0110
2. Now, find the 1's complement of the number 0 0110, i.e. 1 1001.
3. Now, add 1 to its LSB. When we add 1 to the LSB of 11001, the newly generated
number comes out 11010. Here, the sign bit is one which means the number is the
negative number.
Example 2: +120 and -120

The number +120 is represented as same as the binary number. For representing both
numbers, take the 8-bit register.

So the +120 is represented in the 8-bit register as 0 1111000.

The -120 is represented in the 8-bit register in the following way:

1. +120=0 1111000
2. Now, find the 1's complement of the number 0 1111000, i.e. 1 0000111. Here, the
MSB denotes the number is the negative number.
3. Now, add 1 to its LSB. When we add 1 to the LSB of 1 0000111, the newly generated
number comes out 1 0001000. Here, the sign bit is one, which means the number is
the negative number.
9's and 10's Complement
If the number is binary, then we use 1's complement and 2's complement. But in case, when
the number is a decimal number, we will use the 9's and 10's complement. The 10's
complement is obtained from the 9's complement of the number, and we can also find the
9's and 10's complement using the r's and (r-1)'s complement formula.

9's Complement
The 9's complement is used to find the subtraction of the decimal numbers. The 9's
complement of a number is calculated by subtracting each digit of the number by 9. For
example, suppose we have a number 1423, and we want to find the 9's complement of the
number. For this, we subtract each digit of the number 1423 by 9. So, the 9's complement of
the number 1423 is 9999-1423= 8576.

Subtraction using 9's complement

With the help of the 9's complement, the process of subtraction is done in a much easier
way. Generally, we subtract the subtrahend from the minuend, but in a case when we
perform subtraction using 9's complement, there is no need to do the same.

For subtracting two numbers using 9's complement, we first have to find the 9's
complement of the subtrahend and then we will add this complement value with the
minuend. There are two possible cases when we subtract the numbers using 9's
complement.

Case 1: When the subtrahend is smaller than the minuend.

For subtracting the smaller number from the larger number using 9's complement, we will
find the 9's complement of the subtrahend, and then we will add this complement value
with the minuend. By adding both these values, the result will come in the formation of
carry. At last, we will add this carry to the result obtained previously.
Case 2: When the subtrahend is greater than the minuend.

In this case, when we add the complement value and the minuend, the result will not come
in the formation of carry. This indicates that the number is negative, and for finding the final
result, we need to find the 9's complement of the result.

10's Complement
The 10's complement is also used to find the subtraction of the decimal numbers. The 10's
complement of a number is calculated by subtracting each digit by 9 and then adding 1 to
the result. Simply, by adding 1 to its 9's complement we can get its 10's complement value.
For example, suppose we have a number 1423, and we want to find the 10's complement of
the number. For this, we find the 9's complement of the number 1423 that is 9999-1423=
8576, and now we will add 1 to the result. So the 10's complement of the number 1423 is
8576+1=8577.

Subtraction using 10's complement

For subtracting two numbers using 10's complement, we first have to find the 10's
complement of the subtrahend, and then we will add this complement value with the
minuend. There are two possible cases when we subtract the numbers using 10's
complement.

Case 1: When the subtrahend is smaller than the minuend.

For subtracting the smaller number from the larger number using 10's complement, we will
find the 10's complement of the subtrahend and then we will add this complement value
with the minuend. By adding both these values, the result will come in the formation of
carry. We ignore this carry and the remaining digits will be the answer.
Case 2: When the subtrahend is greater than the minuend.

In this case, when we add the complement value and the minuend, the result will not come
in the formation of carry. This indicates that the number is negative and for finding the final
result, we need to find the 10's complement of the result obtained by adding complement
value of subtrahend and minuend.
Addition and Subtraction using 1's
complement
In our previous section, we learned about different complements such as 1's complement,
2's complement, 9's complement, and 10's complement, etc.. In this section, we will learn to
perform the arithmetic operations such as addition and subtraction using 1's complement.
We can perform addition and subtraction using 1's, 2's, 9's, and 10's complement.

Addition using 1's complement

There are three different cases possible when we add two binary numbers which are as
follows:

Case 1: Addition of the positive number with a negative number when the positive
number has a greater magnitude.

Initially, calculate the 1's complement of the given negative number. Sum up with the given
positive number. If we get the end-around carry 1, it gets added to the LSB.

Example: 1101 and -1001

1. First, find the 1's complement of the negative number 1001. So, for finding 1's
complement, change all 0 to 1 and all 1 to 0. The 1's complement of the number
1001 is 0110.
2. Now, add both the numbers, i.e., 1101 and 0110;
1101+0110=1 0011
3. By adding both numbers, we get the end-around carry 1. We add this end around
carry to the LSB of 0011.
0011+1=0100

Case 2: Adding a positive value with a negative value in case the negative number has a
higher magnitude.

Initially, calculate the 1's complement of the negative value. Sum it with a positive number.
In this case, we did not get the end-around carry. So, take the 1's complement of the result
to get the final result.

Note: The resultant is a negative value.

Example: 1101 and -1110

1. First find the 1's complement of the negative number 1110. So, for finding 1's
complement, we change all 0 to 1, and all 1 to 0. 1's complement of the number
1110 is 0001.
 2. Now, add both the numbers, i.e., 1101 and 0001;
1101+0001= 1110
3. Now, find the 1's complement of the result 1110 that is the final result. So, the 1's
complement of the result 1110 is 0001, and we add a negative sign before the
number so that we can identify that it is a negative number.

Case 3: Addition of two negative numbers

In this case, first find the 1's complement of both the negative numbers, and then we add
both these complement numbers. In this case, we always get the end-around carry, which
get added to the LSB, and for getting the final result, we take the 1's complement of the
result.

Note: The resultant is a negative value.

Example: -1101 and -1110 in five-bit register

1. Firstly find the 1's complement of the negative numbers 01101 and 01110. So, for
finding 1's complement, we change all 0 to 1, and all 1 to 0. 1's complement of the
number 01110 is 10001, and 01101 is 10010.
2. Now, we add both the complement numbers, i.e., 10001 and 10010;
10001+10010= 1 00011
3. By adding both numbers, we get the end-around carry 1. We add this end-around
carry to the LSB of 00011.
00011+1=00100
4. Now, find the 1's complement of the result 00100 that is the final answer. So, the 1's
complement of the result 00100 is 110111, and add a negative sign before the
number so that we can identify that it is a negative number.

Subtraction using 1's complement

These are the following steps to subtract two binary numbers using 1's complement

 In the first step, find the 1's complement of the subtrahend.

 Next, add the complement number with the minuend.
 If got a carry, add the carry to its LSB. Else take 1's complement of the result which
will be negative

Note: The subtrahend value always get subtracted from minuend.

Example 1: 10101 - 00111

We take 1's complement of subtrahend 00111, which comes out 11000. Now, sum them.
So,

10101+11000 =1 01101.
In the above result, we get the carry bit 1, so add this to the LSB of a given result, i.e.,
01101+1=01110, which is the answer.

Example 2: 10101 - 10111

We take 1's complement of subtrahend 10111, which comes out 01000. Now, add both of
the numbers. So,

10101+01000 =11101.

In the above result, we didn't get the carry bit. So calculate the 1's complement of the
result, i.e., 00010, which is the negative number and the final answer.
Addition and Subtraction using 2's
complement
In our previous section, we learned how we could perform arithmetic operations such as
addition and subtraction using 1's complement. In this section, we will learn to perform
these operations using 2's complement.

Addition using 2's complement

There are three different cases possible when we add two binary numbers using 2's
complement, which is as follows:

Case 1: Addition of the positive number with a negative number when the positive
number has a greater magnitude.

Initially find the 2's complement of the given negative number. Sum up with the given
positive number. If we get the end-around carry 1 then the number will be a positive
number and the carry bit will be discarded and remaining bits are the final result.

Example: 1101 and -1001

1. First, find the 2's complement of the negative number 1001. So, for finding 2's
complement, change all 0 to 1 and all 1 to 0 or find the 1's complement of the
number 1001. The 1's complement of the number 1001 is 0110, and add 1 to the LSB
of the result 0110. So the 2's complement of number 1001 is 0110+1=0111
2. Add both the numbers, i.e., 1101 and 0111;
1101+0111=1 0100
3. By adding both numbers, we get the end-around carry 1. We discard the end-around
carry. So, the addition of both numbers is 0100.

Case 2: Adding of the positive value with a negative value when the negative number has
a higher magnitude.

Initially, add a positive value with the 2's complement value of the negative number. Here,
no end-around carry is found. So, we take the 2's complement of the result to get the final
result.

Note: The resultant is a negative value.

Example: 1101 and -1110

1. First, find the 2's complement of the negative number 1110. So, for finding 2's
complement, add 1 to the LSB of its 1's complement value 0001.
0001+1=0010
 2. Add both the numbers, i.e., 1101 and 0010;
1101+0010= 1111
3. Find the 2's complement of the result 1110 that is the final result. So, the 2's
complement of the result 1110 is 0001, and add a negative sign before the number
so that we can identify that it is a negative number.

Case 3: Addition of two negative numbers

In this case, first, find the 2's complement of both the negative numbers, and then we will
add both these complement numbers. In this case, we will always get the end-around carry,
which will be added to the LSB, and forgetting the final result, we will take the2's
complement of the result.

Note: The resultant is a negative value.

Example: -1101 and -1110 in five-bit register

1. Firstly find the 2's complement of the negative numbers 01101 and 01110. So, for
finding 2's complement, we add 1 to the LSB of the 1's complement of these
numbers. 2's complement of the number 01110 is 10010, and 01101 is 10011.
2. We add both the complement numbers, i.e., 10001 and 10010;
10010+10011= 1 00101
3. By adding both numbers, we get the end-around carry 1. This carry is discarded and
the final result is the 2.s complement of the result 00101. So, the 2's complement of
the result 00101 is 11011, and we add a negative sign before the number so that we
can identify that it is a negative number.

Subtraction using 2's complement

These are the following steps to subtract two binary numbers using 2's complement

 In the first step, find the 2's complement of the subtrahend.

 Add the complement number with the minuend.
 If we get the carry by adding both the numbers, then we discard this carry and the
result is positive else take 2's complement of the result which will be negative.

Example 1: 10101 - 00111

We take 2's complement of subtrahend 00111, which is 11001. Now, sum them. So,

10101+11001 =1 01110.

In the above result, we get the carry bit 1. So we discard this carry bit and remaining is the
final result and a positive number.

Example 2: 10101 - 10111

We take 2's complement of subtrahend 10111, which comes out 01001. Now, we add both
of the numbers. So,

10101+01001 =11110.

In the above result, we didn't get the carry bit. So calculate the 2's complement of the
result, i.e., 00010. It is the negative number and the final answer.