AP Chemistry Unit 4a – Chemical Reactions
TOPIC 4.1: Chemical & Physical Change
Physical change
If some aspect of the physical state of matter is altered, but the chemical composition remains the same,
then the change is a physical change. The most common physical changes are changes of state. These
are summarized below.
SOLID → LIQUID Melting
LIQUID → GAS Boiling
GAS → LIQUID Condensing
SOLID → GAS Sublimation
GAS → SOLID Reverse sublimation or deposition
LIQUID → SOLID Freezing
In solids, the particles have relatively little energy and vibrate around fixed positions. If a solid is heated,
the particles gain energy, move around more, and eventually gain enough energy to break away from
their fixed positions and form a liquid. Continued heating leads to the liquid particles gaining sufficient
energy to break away from one another and form a gas. In a gas the particles move freely and with
relatively large amounts of energy.
Chemical change
In a chemical change, which is often called a chemical reaction, the atoms of a substance are rearranged
to form new substances. A chemical change requires that the new substance or substances formed have
a different chemical composition to the original substance or substances. Chemical changes are often
accompanied by observable changes such as color changes and energy changes.
There is a very important distinction between these two types of changes that you will come across in
UNIT 04, but for now, note the following.
• During physical changes the intermolecular forces (the forces between particles) are disrupted,
e.g., boiling water separates one water molecule (H2O) from another water molecule, but does
not break any, individual water molecule apart to form hydrogen and oxygen.
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• During chemical changes, the intra forces (the forces within substances) are disrupted, e.g.,
during the electrolysis of water, one water molecule (H 2O) splits up to form O and H atoms.
Individual water molecules do break apart.
Driving forces
Evidence for chemical change can manifest itself in several ways. One might see a precipitate form,
experience a change of energy in the form of heat or light, observe a color change, see the formation of a
gas, or observe an electrical current (a flow of electrons), all of which suggest that a chemical reaction
has taken place. Such changes are sometimes called driving forces.
Gas producing reactions
Several reactions produce gases as one of the products.
Generic reaction: Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen
Example: Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Test for gas: ‘Squeaky-pop’ with lighted splint
Generic reaction: Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + CO2
Example: H2SO4(aq) + CaCO3(s) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Test for gas: Extinguishes a lighted splint; turns ‘lime-water’ (Ca(OH)2) milky (N2, or
simply a lack of O2, will also extinguish a lighted splint)
Specific reaction: Production of O2 by the decomposition of H2O2 with MnO2 catalyst
Reaction: 2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Test for gas: Relights glowing splint
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TOPIC 4.2: Equations & Net Ionic Equations
Chemical equations
Chemical equations are a shorthand method used to illustrate what happens during a chemical reaction.
There can be several steps to writing an equation.
1. Write down the equation in words.
2. Fill in the correct formula for all the substances.
3. Balance the equation.
Balancing the equation can be tricky and requires practice. It involves the following steps.
(i) Ensure the correct formula are being used for all the reactants and products
(ii) Balance each element in turn, remembering to multiply brackets out carefully. This process can be
rather “unscientific”, and is essentially a process of trial and error but can be aided by the following
tips;
• If an element appears in only one compound on each side of the equation, try balancing that first
• If one of the reactants or products appears as the free element, try balancing that last
(iii) When balancing, only place numbers in front of whole formula. Do not change the (correct) formula
of any of the reactants or products or add any extra formula. The numbers that appear in front of
each formula are called the stoichiometric coefficients. They have an extremely important role to play
in calculations since they give the reacting ratio (i.e., the number of moles of one substance that
react with, or are produced from, others).
4. Add state symbols; (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, (g) for gas and (aq) for aqueous (meaning in solution with
water as the solvent). State symbols are not always necessary or relevant and should be applied on a
case-by-case basis.
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Task 4.1 Balancing Equations
1. Balance the following equations.
(a) Ca + H2O → H2 + Ca(OH)2
(b) Fe + HCl → FeCl2 + H2
(c) Fe + Br2 → FeBr3
(d) C4H8 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
(e) CuCO3 → CuO + CO2
(f) Pb(NO3)2 → PbO + NO2 + O2
(g) H2SO4 + KOH → K2SO4 + H2O
(h) NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
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Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
Many qualitative and quantitative chemical reactions are carried out in an aqueous solution (where the
compounds are dissolved in water before they react). Water is a convenient medium since it is a cheap
and readily available solvent, that many solids dissolve in. When dealing with aqueous solution, we often
take the molecular (full) equations seen in the previous section and create further nuances. To consider
these other ways of representing equations, we must think about a few aspects of chemicals in a solution.
Electrolytes, non-electrolytes and weak electrolytes
Ionic solutions can be identified by their ability to conduct electricity. If many ions are present in a
solution, then the solution will be an excellent conductor of electricity. Such a substance is completely
ionized and is a strong electrolyte. All soluble ionic compounds, but very few molecular compounds are
strong electrolytes.
If the ionic solution conducts electricity only weakly, there are likely to be only a few ions present. Such a
substance is partially ionized and is a weak electrolyte.
Non-electrolytes have no ions present in solution and therefore cannot conduct electricity. Such a
substance is not ionized and is a non-electrolyte. Most molecular compounds are either nonelectrolytes
or weak electrolytes.
Ionic equations
To understand what is happening as substances interact with water, we can use ionic equations to show
the degree of ionization taking place.
Strong electrolytes are completely dissociated into ions. For example, solid strontium chloride, when
dissolved in water, forms aqueous strontium ions and aqueous chloride ions. This can be summarized as;
SrCl2(s) → Sr2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
In this situation, the ∂- part of the water molecules (i.e., the more electronegative oxygen atoms) surround
the cations, and the ∂+ part of the water molecules (i.e., the more electropositive hydrogen atoms)
surround the anions. Both cations and anions, when surrounded by water, are said to be ‘hydrated’.
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Weak electrolytes are only partially dissociated into a few ions. For example, a solution of ethanoic acid
only forms a few ions in water. This can be summarized as;
HC2H3O2(aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + C2H3O2- (aq)
The reversible arrows imply that although the ethanoic acid may split up into hydrogen ions and
ethanoate ions, the reaction may come backwards to the left too, re-joining the ions to form the
completely non-ionized molecule. In fact, in the case of a weak electrolyte, most of the solution will be
made up of complete (non-ionized) ethanoic acid molecules.
Non-electrolytes are not ionized at all, and therefore there are no ions present. For example, a solution of
ethanol in water, although entirely soluble because of the hydrogen bonding between water and ethanol
molecules, forms no ions. This can be summarized as;
C2H5OH(aq) → no ionization
Net Ionic Equations
When a chemical equation is shown in its ionic form, it may be possible to simplify it to what is known as
a net ionic equation. Consider this example where the strong electrolytes silver nitrate and potassium
bromide (AgNO3(aq) and KBr(aq)) react to yield silver bromide which is a solid that does not ionize (AgBr (s)),
and another strong electrolyte potassium nitrate (KNO 3(aq)).
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + K+(aq) + Br -(aq) → AgBr(s) + K+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
The potassium and nitrate ions are in the aqueous state on both sides of the equation, and essentially do
not take part in the reaction (i.e., they remain unchanged). They are spectator ions, and the equation can
be re-written only showing the ions that take part in the reaction.
Ag+ (aq) + Br- (aq) → AgBr(s)
This equation is called the net ionic equation.
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Task 4.2 Ionic Equations
1. Write the equation when the following compounds dissolve in water:
a. HF (weak electrolyte)
b. Na2O (strong electrolyte)
c. Al2(SO4)3 (strong electrolyte)
d. CH3OH (nonelectrolyte)
2. Write the ionic and net ionic equation for the following molecular equations:
a. Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Mg(OH)2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
b. Fe(s) + Ni(NO3)2(aq) → Ni(s) + Fe(NO3)2(aq)
c. HF(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) → H2O(l) + BaF2(aq)
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TOPIC 4.3: Particulate Representations of Equations
No matter how the chemical or physical process is represented in an equation, it can be translated into a
particulate diagram where symbols can be used to represent the equation.
It is very important to consider the conservation of mass, i.e., that all the particles that were present at the
start of the reaction are present at the end.
Task 4.3 Particulate Representations
1. The reaction between hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen gas (O2) can result in the formation of
liquid water (H2O).
a. Describe any observations that you might reasonably expect to make during this
reaction.
b. Write a balanced chemical equation to summarize the reaction.
c. Draw a particulate diagram representing the reaction.
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TOPIC 4.4: Chemical & Physical Change in Terms of Bonds & Forces
It is vital to distinguish between physical change (where only states change and there are no new
substances formed), and chemical change (where new substances are formed). If there is only an
interruption in the inter-molecular forces then the change should be seen as physical, but if there is a re-
arrangement of the intra (covalent or ionic) bonds, then the change is chemical.
Task 4.4 Chemical and Physical Changes
1. Discuss the change in forces and bonds when water boils.
2. Discuss the change in forces and bonds when water decomposes into its elements.
Some changes such as the dissolution of a salt in water are more difficult to characterize as being
physical or chemical, since both intra bonds are broken (breaking ionic bonds in the ionic lattice), and
inter-molecular attractions are broken between the solvent (water) molecules, before ion to dipole forces
are created when the ions are surrounded by water molecules. However, both the salt and the water
retain their properties so it is commonly classified as a physical change.
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TOPIC 4.5: Stoichiometry
The mole concept and calculations from equations
We have already seen how moles can be calculated, and how a balanced chemical equation that shows
the molar ratios can be used to make predictions about other substances within the equation. The
equations used previously to calculate moles and perform these calculations amongst solid, liquids and
solutions are given below.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 =
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)(𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠)
In any stoichiometry problem you will:
1. Convert the unit given into moles
2. Use the mol ratio to convert from the substance given to the substance the problem is asking for
3. Convert the moles you calculated to the unit the problem is asking for
In the case of a solution stoichiometry problem where you are given volume and molarity for both reacting
substances you may use the following formula as a short cut:
𝑀𝑎𝑉𝑎 = 𝑀𝑏𝑉𝑏
Task 4.5 Stoichiometry
1. The combustion of methane, CH4, can be summarized by the equation below.
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
(a) Calculate the mass of O2 required to produce 2.23 g of carbon dioxide.
(b) Calculate the mass of water produced when 34.0 g of CH4 is burned
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2. In an experiment to determine the reacting ratio of moles between a metal X, and bromine gas,
it is found that 4.0 g of Br2 reacts with 1.0 g of X, and that X has a molar mass of 40.0 g/mol.
(a) Calculate the molar ratio and hence the chemical equation.
(b) Identify the metal and explain how these data are consistent with your identification.
3. What mass of solute (solid sodium carbonate, Na2CO3), must be used to prepare 275 mL of
1.20M sodium carbonate solution?
Questions 4-6 require balanced equations before they can be solved.
4. Carbonates, in the form of antacid tablets, can be used to neutralize stomach acid. 25.0 mL of
0.100 M sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, solution completely reacts with 35.3 mL of HCl in such a
simulated neutralization. What is the concentration (molarity) of the acid?
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5. Some metals will react vigorously with acids to produce hydrogen gas. What mass of zinc
metal will react completely with 75.0 mL of 0.200 M sulfuric acid, H2SO4?
6. Hydroxides can be used to neutralize acids. What volume of 1.00 M NaOH, would be required to
completely neutralize 25.0 mL of 2.00 M HCI?
Molar volume and gas stoichiometry
We have seen how Avogadro's law states that equal volumes of all gases at constant temperature and
pressure will contain equal numbers of moles. The volume of one mole of any gas is called its molar
volume and can be calculated using the ideal gas equation.
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
By applying the data, pressure (P) = 1.00 atm, temperature (T) = 273 K, the gas constant (R) =
0.0821 L atm/K mol, number of moles (n) = 1.00 mol, the volume (V) can be found. A simple calculation
finds its value to be = 22.4 L. That is to say,
1 mole of any ideal gas at standard temperature and pressure (STP) occupies a volume of 22.4 L
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Task 4.6 Gas Stoichiometry
Assume conditions of standard temperature and pressure (STP) in the questions below.
1. Calculate the mass of ammonium chloride required to produce 11.6 L of ammonia gas in the
reaction below.
2NH4CI(s) + Ca(OH)2(s) → 2NH3(g) + CaCI2(s) + 2H2O(g)
2. Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide gas produced when 9.85 g of barium carbonate is
completely decomposed in the reaction below.
BaCO3(s) → BaO(s) + CO2(g)
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Limiting reactant
When all the reactants in a chemical reaction are completely consumed, i.e., they are all converted to
products, then the reactants are said to be in stoichiometric proportions. On other occasions, it may be
that only one reactant is completely used up. This happens when one reactant is in excess. The reactant
that is completely consumed is called the limiting reactant, and it is what determines the quantities of
products that form.
Task 4.7 Limiting Reactant
S(s) + 3Cl2(g) → SCl6(l)
Sulfur and chlorine react according to the equation above. If 202 g of sulfur are allowed to react
with 303 g of CI2 in the reaction above, which is the limiting reactant? What mass of products will
be produced? What mass of the excess reactant will be left over?
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Percentage yield
In all chemical reactions, the yield of the product will be less than 100%. The yield is usually less than
100% since the reactants are often not pure, some of the product is lost during purification, the reaction
may be reversible and/or side reactions may give by-products. The % yield can be calculated and can be
thought of as a guide to the efficiency of the reaction. The higher the % yield, the greater the efficiency.
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
% 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = ( ) × 100
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
Task 4.8 Percent Yield
4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
Aluminum will react with oxygen gas according to the equation above. In one such reaction, 23.4
g of Al are allowed to burn in excess oxygen. 39.3 g of aluminum oxide are formed. What is the
percentage yield?
Combustion analysis
Compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen only, when burned completely in oxygen, will yield only
carbon dioxide and water. Analysis of the mass of CO 2 and H2O produced can be used to determine the
empirical formula of the substance in question. This method assumes that all the carbon in CO 2
originated from the carbon in the original compound, and all the hydrogen in the water originated from the
hydrogen in the original compound. The method is as follows.
1. Calculate the moles of CO2 produced. Since there is one carbon atom in one molecule of CO 2,
this is also the number of moles of C atoms present in the original compound.
2. Calculate the moles of H2O produced. Since there are two hydrogen atoms in one molecule of
H2O, multiply this number by two to calculate the number of moles of H atoms present in the
original compound.
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3. Calculate the mass of C and H atoms present in the combusted sample by multiplying the moles
of each by their molar masses.
4. If there is another element present (typically O) in the combusted substance, then calculate its
mass by subtracting the mass of C and H from the total mass of the combusted sample. Turn the
mass of element into moles by dividing by the appropriate molar mass.
5. Find the smallest number of moles calculated and divide all the numbers of moles by that
number. This gives the molar ratio. N.B. Avoid rounding up or down too much at this stage and be
lenient with significant figures.
6. The results from #5 should be in a convenient ratio and give the empirical formula. N.B. It may be
that the ratio includes a fraction such as .500, .250 or .333 etc. If so, then multiply all numbers by
2, 4 or 3 as appropriate to remove the fraction.
7. If necessary, use the molar mass to turn the empirical formula into a molecular formula.
Task 4.9 Combustion Analysis
When 4-ketopentenoic acid is analyzed by combustion, it is found that a 0.3000 g sample
produces 0.579 g of CO2 and 0.142 g of H2O. The acid contains only carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. What is the empirical formula of the acid?
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Analysis of hydrates
Hydrates are formula units with water associated with them. The water molecules are incorporated into
the solid structure. For example, CuSO4 • 5H2O, copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate. Strong heating will drive
off the water as a vapor. When the water is completely removed, the salts are said to be anhydrous
(without water).
To calculate the formula of the hydrate:
1. Convert the mass of the dry compound to moles
2. Calculate the mass of water in the hydrate by subtracting the hydrated and the dehydrated
compound
3. Conver the mass of water to moles
4. Doing an “empirical style” calculation, divide both number of moles by the least to find the
ratio.
Task 4.10 Formula of a Hydrate
1. A sample of the hydrated salt CoCl2 • x H2O, with a mass of 11.73 g, is heated to drive off the
water of crystallization, cooled and reweighed until constant mass (6.410 g) is achieved.
Calculate the value of x.
TOPIC 4.6: Titrations I
Volumetric analysis (titrations) and moles
Chemical reactions are often carried out between substances that are in solution (dissolved in a solvent,
usually water). The concentration of a solution can be measured in terms of the number of grams of the
solute (solid) that has been dissolved in a particular volume of the solution (where water is usually the
solvent), or more usually, in terms of the number of moles of the solute in a particular volume of the
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solution. Typical units are mol/L and are referred to as molarity (M). So, for example, a solution that has a
concentration of 0.250 M has 0.250 moles of solute dissolved in 1.0 L of solution and can be referred to
as ‘0.250 M solution’ or a ‘0.250 ‘molar’ solution’. When concentration is measured in M and volume in
liters (l), then;
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒)
Titration is the name given to the experimental method of analysis that utilizes concentrations of
solutions. As above, if we know a balanced chemical equation and can calculate the moles of one
substance, then by ratio we will know the moles of other substances, and we can use that data to
calculate an unknown concentration. We need to use a substance with the known concentration (called
the titrant) that specifically reacts with the solution of unknown concentration (called the analyte). For
example, the addition of a solution of hydrochloric acid to a solution of sodium hydroxide resulting in the
formation of sodium chloride plus water according to the balanced equation below.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Unlike gravimetric analysis, there is no solid formed in this reaction, so we must have another way of
determining that the analyte has been totally consumed and therefore the stoichiometric molar ratio has
been achieved. We accomplish this by using an indicator that changes color at the equivalence point (the
point at which the stoichiometric molar ratio has been achieved). The observable event that occurs at the
equivalence point is called the end point.
Task 4.11 Titration
Hydroxides can be used to neutralize acids. It is found that an indicator changes color at the
precise moment that 44.0 mL of NaOH has been added to 25.0 mL of 2.00 M HCI in a titration. Use
this data to calculate the concentration of NaOH.
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