Chapter 5

Wastewater treatment
fundamentals

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The science and engineering of wastewater treatment has progressed tre-

mendously over the last four or ve decades. As knowledge and under-
standing of the relationship between waterborne pathogens and public
health has increased, so has the impetus for innovation of new technologies
for treatment of wastewater. In the last century, population growth and
industrialization have resulted in signi cant degradation of the environ-
ment. Disposal of untreated wastes and wastewater on land or in streams
and rivers is no longer an option. Newer regulations are aimed at protect-
ing the environment as well as public health.
Wastewater engineering has come a long way from the time when city
residents had to place night soil (fecal waste) in buckets along the streets,
and workers collected the waste and delivered it to rural areas for disposal
on agricultural lands. With the invention of the ush toilet, night soil was
transformed into wastewater. It was not feasible to transport these large
liquid volumes for land disposal. So cities began to use natural drainage
systems and storm sewers to transport the wastewater to streams and riv-
ers, where it was discharged without any treatment. The common notion
was, “the solution to pollution is dilution.” However, with increasing
urbanization, the self-puri cation capacity of the receiving waters was
exceeded, causing degradation of the water bodies and the environment. In
the late 1800s and early 1900s, various treatment processes were applied
to wastewater (Peavy et al., 1985). By the 1920s, treatment plants were
designed and constructed for proper treatment of wastewater prior to dis-
posal. With newer and more stringent regulations, existing processes are
modi ed and innovative technologies are introduced to achieve enhanced
removal of pollutants.
The objectives of wastewater treatment are to reduce (1) the level of sol-
ids, (2) the level of biodegradable organic matter, (3) the level of pathogens,
and (4) the level of toxic compounds in the wastewater, to meet regulatory
limits that are protective of public health and the environment.

75
76 Fundamentals of wastewater treatment and engineering

5.2 SOURCES OF WASTEWATER

The following are common sources or types of wastewater:

• Domestic or municipal wastewater: this includes wastewater dis-

charged from residences, institutions such as schools and hospitals,
and commercial facilities such as restaurants, shopping malls, etc.
• Industrial wastewater: wastewater discharged from industrial pro-
cesses, e.g. pharmaceutical industry, poultry processing.
• In ltration and in ow: this includes water that eventually enters the
sewer from foundation drains, leaking pipes, submerged manholes,
and groundwater in ltration, among others.
• Stormwater: rainfall runoff and snow melt.

Municipal wastewater is usually collected in sanitary sewers and trans-

ported to the wastewater treatment plant. Stormwater may be collected in
separate sewer lines called storm sewers. In some cities, especially older
cities, stormwater is collected in the same sewer line as the domestic waste-
water. This type of system is called a combined sewer system. Each system
has advantages and disadvantages. Industrial wastewater may be treated
on-site, or pretreated and then discharged to sanitary sewers, after appro-
priate removal of pollutants.

5.3 WASTEWATER CONSTITUENTS

The major constituents of municipal wastewater are suspended solids,

organic matter, and pathogens. Nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus
can cause problems when present in high concentrations. In recent years, the
presence of EDCs (endocrine disrupting compounds) has been recognized as
an area of concern. Industrial wastewater can contain the above-mentioned
contaminants, as well as heavy metals, toxic compounds, and refractory
organics. Stormwater may contain petroleum compounds, silt, and pesti-
cides when it includes urban runoff and agricultural runoff. Table 5.1 pro-
vides the environmental impacts of the major constituents of wastewater.
Suspended solids consist of inert matter such as rags, silt, and paper,
as well as food waste and human waste. Biodegradable organic matter is
composed of 40% to 60% proteins, 25% to 50% carbohydrates, and about
10% lipids (Peavy et al., 1985). Proteins are mainly amino acids and contain
nitrogen. Carbohydrates are sugars, starches, and cellulose. Lipids include
fats, oils, and grease. All of these exert an oxygen demand. Table 5.2 pres-
ents the typical characteristics of untreated municipal wastewater.
The constituents of industrial wastewaters vary widely depending on the
type of industry and the processes used in manufacturing the product. In
 Wastewater treatment fundamentals 77

Table 5.1 Environmental impacts of major wastewater pollutants

Pollutant Source Environmental impact on receiving waters
Suspended solids Municipal wastewater, Scum layer on water surface, sludge
stormwater deposits
Organic matter Municipal wastewater, Dissolved oxygen depletion, anaerobic
possible industrial conditions, sh kills
wastewater
Nutrients Municipal wastewater, Eutrophication and impairment of
industrial wastewater water quality
Pathogens Municipal wastewater Transmission of diseases
Heavy metals Industrial wastewater Toxic to aquatic life
Refractory organics Industrial wastewater May be toxic or carcinogenic
Endocrine disrupting Municipal wastewater Feminization of sh, possible broader
compounds scope of impacts
Source: Adapted from Peavy et al. (1985).

Table 5.2 Typical characteristics of untreated municipal wastewater

Component Concentration range
Biochemical oxygen demand, BOD5 at 20°C 100–360 mg/L
Chemical oxygen demand, COD 250–1000 mg/L
Total organic carbon, TOC 80–300 mg/L
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) 20–85 mg/L as N
Total phosphorus 5–15 mg/L as P
Oil and grease 50–120 mg/L
Total solids (TS) 400–1200 mg/L
Total dissolved solids (TDS) 250–850 mg/L
Total suspended solids (TSS) 110–400 mg/L
Volatile suspended solids (VSS) 90–320 mg/L
Fixed suspended solids (FSS) 20–80 mg/L
Settleable solids 5–20 ml/L
Total coliform 106–1010 No./100 ml
Fecal coliform 103–108 No./100 ml
Source: Adapted from Metcalf and Eddy (2003).

the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has grouped
the pollutants into three categories: conventional pollutants such as pH,
BOD5 (biochemical oxygen demand), TSS (total suspended solids), oil,
and grease; nonconventional pollutants such as COD (chemical oxygen
demand), ammonia, hexavalent chromium, phenols, etc.; and priority pol-
lutants such as arsenic, cadmium, etc. The complete list can be found in the
Code of Federal Regulations (Federal Register, 2010). Table 5.3 presents
selected characteristics of a number of industrial wastewaters.
78 Fundamentals of wastewater treatment and engineering

Table 5.3 Typical characteristics of selected industrial wastewaters

Industry BOD, mg/L COD, mg/L TSS, mg/L
Milk processing 1300 3100 300
Meat processing 1400 2500 950
Pulp and paper (kraft) 300 550 250
Tannery 4000 7500 15,000
Slaughterhouse (cattle) 2000 3600 800
Cheese production 3000 5500 950
Pharmaceuticals 280 390 160
Source: Adapted from Hammer and Hammer (2012) and Davis (2011).

5.4 WASTEWATER TREATMENT METHODS

Wastewater can be treated using any or a combination of the following

types of treatment methods, depending on the nature of pollutants and the
level of desired removal.

5.4.1 Physical treatment

Physical treatment involves the removal of pollutants from the wastewater
by simple physical forces, e.g. sedimentation, screening, ltration. Physical
treatment processes are used mainly for removal of suspended solids.

5.4.2 Chemical treatment

Chemical treatment involves the addition of chemicals to achieve conversion
or destruction of contaminants through chemical reactions, e.g. coagula-
tion– occulation for solids removal, disinfection for pathogen destruction,
chemical precipitation for phosphorus removal.

5.4.3 Biological treatment

Biological treatment involves the conversion or destruction of contami-
nants with the help of microorganisms. In municipal wastewater treatment
plants, microorganisms indigenous to wastewaters are used in biological
treatment operations. Examples of biological treatment include activated
sludge process, membrane bioreactor, trickling lter, and others. The pri-
mary purpose of biological treatment is to remove and reduce the biode-
gradable organic matter from wastewater to an acceptable level according
to regulatory limits. Biological treatment is also used to remove nutrients
such as nitrogen and phosphorus from wastewater.
 Wastewater treatment fundamentals 79

5.5 LEVELS OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT

A wastewater treatment system is a combination of unit operations and unit

processes designed to reduce contaminants to an acceptable level. The term
unit operation refers to processes that use physical treatment methods. The
term unit processes refers to processes that use biological and/or chemical
treatment methods. Unit operations and processes may be grouped together
to provide the following levels of treatment (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003).

5.5.1 Preliminary treatment

Preliminary treatment involves the physical removal of pollutant substances
such as rags, twigs, etc. that can cause operational problems in pumps,
treatment processes, and other appurtenances. Examples of preliminary
treatment are screens for removal of large debris, comminutor for grind-
ing large particles, grit chamber for removal of inert suspended solids, and
otation for removal of oils and grease.

5.5.2 Primary treatment

Primary treatment involves the physical removal of a portion of the sus-
pended solids from wastewater, usually by sedimentation. Primary clari -
ers are used for this purpose. Primary clari er ef uent contains signi cant
amounts of BOD and requires further treatment. Primary treatment often
includes preliminary as well as primary treatment operations.

5.5.3 Enhanced primary treatment

Enhanced primary treatment involves the use of chemical treatment to
obtain additional solids removal in a sedimentation process. Chemical
coagulants are used to promote coagulation and occulation of solids in a
sedimentation tank, resulting in enhanced suspended solids removal. Blue
Plains Advanced Wastewater Treatment Plant in Washington, D.C., uses an
iron coagulant together with a polymer to achieve enhanced solids removal
in their primary clari ers (Neupane et al., 2008).

5.5.4 Conventional secondary treatment

Conventional secondary treatment involves biological treatment for deg-
radation of organic matter and solids reduction. Ef ciency is measured
mainly in terms of BOD5 and suspended solids removal. Treatment is car-
ried out in a biological reactor followed by a sedimentation tank or second-
ary clari er. Examples of secondary treatment are activated sludge process,
trickling lter, etc.
80 Fundamentals of wastewater treatment and engineering

5.5.5 Secondary treatment with nutrient removal

When removal of nutrients, such as nitrogen and/or phosphorus, is required,
it may be combined with the secondary treatment for BOD removal.
Additional reactors may be required to achieve nitrogen removal through
the nitri cation–denitri cation process. A combination of chemical and
biological treatment can be used.

5.5.6 Tertiary treatment

Tertiary treatment includes treatment processes used after the secondary,
e.g. granular media ltration used for removal of residual suspended solids,
and disinfection for pathogen reduction. Additional treatment for nutrient
removal is also included in tertiary treatment.

5.5.7 Advanced treatment

Advanced treatment processes are used when additional removal of waste-
water constituents is desired due to toxicity of certain compounds, or for
potential water reuse applications. Examples include activated carbon
adsorption for removal of volatile organic compounds, ion exchange for
removal of speci c ions, etc.

5.6 RESIDUALS AND BIOSOLIDS MANAGEMENT

Each of the treatment processes described above generates a certain amount

of waste solids. The waste generated is semisolid in nature and is termed
sludge. The waste generated from preliminary treatment includes grit and
screenings. These waste residuals are low in organic content and are disposed
of in land lls. The sludge generated from primary and secondary clari ers
has a signi cant amount of organic matter and requires further treatment
and processing prior to disposal. The term biosolids is used to denote treated
sludge. The cost of treatment of sludge and disposal of biosolids can be
equivalent to 40% to 50% of the total cost of wastewater treatment.
The main objectives of sludge treatment are (a) to reduce the organic
content, (b) to reduce the liquid fraction, and (c) to reduce the pathogen
content. If the sludge contains heavy metals or other toxic compounds,
local or state regulations may require additional treatment depending on
the nal disposal of the biosolids produced.
The liquid fraction is reduced by a number of processes. These include
gravity thickening, dissolved air otation, centrifugation, belt lter press,
etc. Organic content and pathogen reduction is achieved by processes that
include anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, air drying, heat drying,
 Wastewater treatment fundamentals 81

thermophilic digestion, composting, lime stabilization, pasteurization, etc.

A combination of these processes may be used depending on the quality of
biosolids desired.
Over the last four decades, most of the research has focused on treatment
of wastewater, while treatment of sludge has lagged behind. The traditional
method of biosolids disposal in land lls is still used extensively. Land appli-
cation of biosolids is practiced in some areas. In recent years, the concept
of bene cial reuse of biosolids as a soil conditioner and fertilizer on agri-
cultural lands has gained importance, both from the viewpoint of green
engineering and necessity. As a result, we have seen increased research on
biosolids for the purpose of further reducing pathogens for safe reuse of the
product. Detailed discussion on biosolids is provided in Chapter 12.

5.7 FLOW DIAGRAMS OF TREATMENT OPTIONS

EXAMPLE 5.1
Draw a ow diagram for a process to treat a municipal wastewater
that has a high concentration of suspended solids, organic matter, and
pathogens. Also, illustrate a sludge treatment option.

SOLUTION
The wastewater can be treated with a conventional process consisting
of primary and secondary treatment. The sludge can be treated using
anaerobic digestion. See Figure 5.1.

Preliminary and Primary Treatment Secondary Treatment

Disinfectant

Wastewater
in uent Grit Primary Biological Secondary E uent
Screens Comminutor
chamber clari er reactor clari er

Sludge recycle
Screens to Grit to
Primary Secondary
land ll land ll
sludge sludge

Gravity
thickener

Wastewater ow E uent recycled Anaerobic Biosolids

thru secondary Centrifuge for land
Sludge ow digester
reactor application

Sludge Treatment

Figure 5.1 Flow diagram of a conventional wastewater treatment process with sludge
digestion.
82 Fundamentals of wastewater treatment and engineering

EXAMPLE 5.2
Draw a ow diagram to treat a wastewater that has a high concentra-
tion of suspended solids, organic matter, pathogens, and a high con-
centration of ammonia–nitrogen.

SOLUTION
The wastewater can be treated using primary treatment followed by
biological treatment to remove organic matter and ammonia–nitrogen.
Ammonia is removed in a two-step biological process consisting of
nitri cation followed by denitri cation. The nitri cation step can be
combined with BOD removal in an aerobic reactor. This is followed by
denitri cation in an anoxic reactor. See Figure 5.2.

EXAMPLE 5.3
Draw a ow diagram for treatment of a wastewater that has a high con-
centration of herbicides, as well as suspended solids and organic matter.

SOLUTION
The wastewater will be treated using primary, secondary, and tertiary
advanced treatment. Activated carbon adsorption is used to remove
the herbicide. See Figure 5.3.

EXAMPLE 5.4
Draw a ow diagram for treatment of a wastewater that has a high
concentration of suspended solids and organic matter. Ef uent dis-
charge regulations allow very low concentration of suspended solids.

SOLUTION
The wastewater treatment will include tertiary treatment together
with primary and secondary treatment. Tertiary treatment consists
of dual media ltration to remove residual suspended solids. See
Figure 5.4.

Combined BOD Denitri cation

Removal & Nitri cation Methanol Disinfectant
Wastewater
in uent Grit Primary Aerobic Secondary Anoxic E uent
Screens Clari er
chamber clari er reactor clari er reactor

Sludge recycle Sludge recycle

Screens to Grit to
land ll land ll

Wastewater ow
Sludge to
Sludge ow
digestion

Figure 5.2 Flow diagram for treatment of wastewater with high nitrogen concentration.
 Wastewater treatment fundamentals 83

Advanced
treatment Disinfectant
Wastewater
in uent Activated E uent
Grit Primary Biological Secondary
Screens carbon
chamber clari er reactor clari er
adsorption

Screens to Grit to Sludge recycle

land ll land ll

Wastewater ow
Sludge ow Sludge to
digestion

Figure 5.3 Flow diagram for an advanced wastewater treatment process.

Tertiary
treatment
Disinfectant
Wastewater
Dual E uent
in uent Grit Primary Biological Secondary
Screens media
chamber clari er reactor clari er
ltration

Sludge recycle
Screens to Grit to
land ll land ll

Wastewater ow
Sludge ow Sludge to
digestion

Figure 5.4 Flow diagram for a wastewater treatment system to achieve very low ef uent
solids concentration.

5.8 TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT PROCESSES

There are two main types of wastewater treatment processes:

1. Suspended growth process—The microorganisms are kept in suspen-

sion in a biological reactor by suitable mixing devices. The process
can be aerobic or anaerobic. Examples of suspended growth processes
include activated sludge process, sequencing batch reactor, ponds and
lagoons, digesters, etc.
2. Attached growth process—The microorganisms responsible for bio-
conversion attach themselves onto an inert medium inside the reactor,
where they grow and form a layer called bio lm. The wastewater
owing through the reactor comes in contact with the bio lm, where
conversion and removal of organic matter takes place. The inert
medium is usually rock, gravel, slag, or synthetic media. The process
can be operated aerobically or anaerobically. Examples are trickling
lters, biotowers, and rotating biological contactors (RBCs).
84 Fundamentals of wastewater treatment and engineering

Effective design and successful operation of the processes depend on a

thorough understanding of the types of microorganisms involved, growth
requirements, reaction kinetics, and environmental factors that affect their
performance. Selection of a particular process should be based on bench
scale and pilot scale studies on the speci c wastewater, investigating the
effects of a variety of possible variables. Detailed discussion of each of
these processes is provided in Chapters 8 and 9.

PROBLEMS
5.1 What are the common sources of wastewater? Name them.
5.2 What are the main objectives of wastewater treatment?
5.2 What are preliminary treatment and primary treatment? What do
they remove?
5.3 What is biological treatment? What are the advantages of biological
treatment?
5.4 What is chemical treatment? If you were given an option, would you
prefer to use chemical treatment or biological treatment? Explain
your reasons.
5.5 De ne the terms ef uent, sludge, and biosolids as they pertain to
wastewater treatment.
5.6 De ne suspended growth and attached growth processes. Give an
example of each.
5.7 What are the main objectives of treatment of sludge?
5.8 Draw a ow diagram of a process to treat a wastewater that has a
high concentration of suspended solids, BOD, pathogens, and phos-
phorus. Also show sludge treatment process.
5.9 Draw a ow diagram for a process to treat a wastewater that has a
high concentration of synthetic organic compounds (SOCs) as well
as suspended solids and organic matter.

REFERENCES
Federal Register (2010) Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40. U.S. Government.
Davis, M. (2011) Water and Wastewater Engineering: Design Principles and Practice.
McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York.
Hammer, M. J., and Hammer M. J. Jr. (2012) Water and Wastewater Technology.
Seventh edition. Pearson-Prentice Hall, Inc., New Jersey.
Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. (2003) Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse.
Fourth edition. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York.
Neupane, D., Riffat, R., Murthy, S., Peric, M., and Wilson, T. (2008) “In uence of
Source Characteristics, Chemicals and Flocculation on Chemically Enhanced
Primary Treatment.” Water Environment Research, vol. 80, no. 4, pp. 331–338.
Peavy, H. S., Rowe, D. R., and Tchobanoglous, G. (1985) Environmental Engineering.
McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York.