UNIT-1

Size Reduction
 Size Reduction also called as comminution or diminution or
pulverisation

 Size reduction is achieved by the Precipitation method or

Mechanical process
 Introduction
 Advantages:
 Content uniformity
 Uniform flow
 Effective extraction of drugs:
Mod. Coarse – Tincture: Coarse powder without
fine - percolation
 Effective drying
 Improved physical stability – Suspension &
emulsion
 Improved dissolution rate
 Introduction
 Disadvantages:
 Drug degradation: heat during milling, increased
Surface area.
 Poor mixing – aggregation, adsorption of air
 Contamination – wear off
 Mechanism
 Flaws in the particle (Impact)  Crack (Further
impact) Smaller particle & Additional surface
 Unmilled particle (Attrition)  Edge break 
small particles
Mode of Stress applied in size reduction
1. Cutting: The material is cut by sharp blades. Ex: Cutter Mill
2. Compression: The material is crushed between rollers. Ex:
Roller Mill
3. Impact: When a stationary material strikes the rotating
Hammers(Hammer Mill) or moving particles strike stationary
surfaces (Fluid energy Mill)
4. Attrition: This process involves breaking down of the
material by rubbing action between two surfaces. Ex: Fluid
energy Mill
 Factors Affecting Size Reduction
 Hardness  Purityrequired
 Toughness  Ratio of feed size to
 Abrasiveness product size
 Stickiness  Bulk density

 Softening temperature
 Material structure
 Moisture content
 Physiological effect
 Factors Affecting Size Reduction
Hardness
 It is a surface property of the material.
 It is frequently confused with a property named strength.
 Thus, it is possible for a material to be very hard, but if it is
brittle, then size reduction may present no special
problems.
 An arbitrary scale of hardness has been devised known as
Moh’s Scale;
 Moh's Scale = 1 is for graphite
 Moh's Scale < 3 is for soft material
 Moh's Scale > 7 is for hard
 Scale = 10 is for diamond
 The harder the material the more difficult it is to
 Factors Affecting Size Reduction
Material structure:
 Some substances are homogeneous in character.
 Mineral substances may have lines of weakness
along which the materials split to form flake-like
particles.
 Vegetable drugs have a cellular structure often
leading to long fibrous particles.
 Factors Affecting Size Reduction
Abrasiveness:
 Abrasiveness is a property of hard materials
(particularly those of mineral origin).
 It may limit the type of machinery that can be
used.
 During the grinding of some very abrasive
substances the final powder may be contaminated
with more than 0.1 percent of metal worn from
the grinding mill.
 Factors Affecting Size Reduction
Softening temperature:
 During the size reduction process, heat is
generated which may cause some substances to
soften, and the temperature at which this occurs
can be important.
 Waxy substances, such as stearic acid, or drugs
containing oils or fats are examples that may be
affected.
 Some methods can be used to overcome this like
the mill, either by a water jacket or by passing a
 Factors Affecting Size Reduction
Friability:
 The friability of the material is its tendency to
fracture during normal handling.
 In general, a crystalline material will break along
well-defined planes and the power required for
crushing will increase as the particle size is
reduced.
Stickiness:
 A sticky material will tend to clog the grinding
equipment and it should therefore be ground in a
 Factors Affecting Size Reduction
Soapiness:
 In general, this is a measure of the coefficient of
friction of the surface of the material. If the
coefficient of friction is low, the crushing may be
more difficult.
Explosive:
 Such materials must be ground wet or in the
presence of an inert atmosphere.
Materials yielding dusts that are harmful to the
health:
 Such material must be ground under conditions
CLASSIFICATION OF SIZE REDUCTION
EQUIPMENT
A. Crushers:
Edge runner mill, end runner mill
B. Grinders:
(1) Impact mill EX: Hammer mill.
(2) Rolling compression: EX: roller mill
(3) Attrition mill EX: attrition mill.
(4) Tumbling mill EX: ball mill.
C. Ultrafine grinder EX: fluid energy mill
D Cutting machine EX: cutter mill.
HAMMER MILL
Principle:
 Impact between rapidly moving hammers
mounted on a rotor and the powder material.
Construction:
 Horizontal or vertical shaft type
 Hammers – hardened steel, stainless steel
 Impact surface – extremely abrasive resistance
material (haystellite, carballoy)
 HAMMER MILL
 Bar shaped hammer – tablet
granulation
 Hammer blades – flat edge /
sharp edge / both on each side
 Rigid or swing-type
 Swing type – increasing
clearance between hammers &
screen
 Chamber containing grid or
removable screen  perorated
holes or slotted type
Working:
 Continuous motion – 8000 -
15000 rpm
HAMMER MILL
 Rotating hammers beat material  to smaller
particles
 Pass through screen  tangential exit  size smaller
than aperture
 Screens – interchangeable –
grades of fineness
 Fineness regulated
 Rotor speed
 Feed rate
 Clearance b/w hammers & grinding plate
 No. & types of hammer
HAMMER MILL
Uses:
 Particle size – 10 - 400 mm
 Non-abrasive to moderately abrasive, brittle
material
 Dry material, wet filter press cakes, ointment,
slurries
 Brittle material – blunt hammer
 Fibrous material – with cutting-edge
HAMMER MILL
Advantages:
 Easy to install, dismantle & clean up
 Minimal scale up problem
 Occupies small space
 Versatile: speed & screen can be changed rapidly
 Operated in a closed environment – dust reduced,
explosion hazards prevented
Disadvantages:
 Screens get clogged
 Heat build up – product degradation
 Wearing of mill & screen with abrasive material
 Not employed for sticky, fibrous & hard materials
BALL MILL/ PEBBLE MILL/ TUMBLING MILL
Principle:
 Impact between rapidly moving balls and the powder
material enclosed in hollow cylinder
 At low speed – balls roll over each other  attrition
predominates
 Impact or attrition or both
Construction:
 Hollow cylinder mounted on a metallic frame 
rotated on its longitudinal axis
 Length is slightly greater than diameter
 Made of metal lined with chrome / rubber /
BALL MILL
 Ball occupy 30 - 50% of mill volume
 Ball size depends upon feed size & mill diameter
 Balls: steel, iron, stoneware
Working:
 Drug in cylinder (60% of volume) + Balls – rotate
on longitudinal axis
 At low speed  balls roll over each other 
attrition predominates
 Small balls  greater surface
 Attrition mode  wet grinding
BALL MILL
 At optimum(corrct) speed  centrifugal force
balls are picked up by the mill wall  carried near
to the top  break contact  fall to the bottom
 Repetition of the processes
 Impact mode  more effective size reduction
 At higher speeds  centrifugal force  balls are
thrown out to the wall  no grinding
 Compression by the ball with
wall not sufficient for effective
comminution.
BALL MILL
Uses:
 Fine grinding – 100 - 5 mm or less
 Hard & abrasive material
 Ball mill at low speed – dyes, pigments &
insecticides
Advantages:
 Produce very fine powder
 Useful for batch operation, can be made
continuous operation
 Suitable for both wet & dry grinding processes
BALL MILL
 Operation can accomplished in inert atmosphere
 oxygen sensitive substance
 For sticky material
 Installation, operation & labour costs  low
Disadvantages:
 Very noisy machine
 Wear & tear  contamination
 Slow process
 Not employed for soft, tacky, fibrous materials
FLUID ENERGY MILL / JET MILL /
MICRONIZERS / ULTRAFINE GRINDERS
Principle:
 Impact and attrition
 Feedstock is
suspended within a
high velocity of air
stream
 High velocity
collision b/w
 FLUID ENERGY MILL / JET MILL /
MICRONIZERS / ULTRAFINE GRINDERS
Construction:
 Elliptical pipe  height:
~ 2m; diameter: 20 - 200
mm
 Mill surface  soft
stainless steel / tough
ceramics
 Contact surface with
linings  removed or
replaced after excessive
FLUID ENERGY MILL
 Grinding nozzle: 2 - 6 no.  placed tangentially or
opposite to the initial flow path
 Compressed air: 600 kilopascal to 1.0 megapascal
 Inert gas: minimize or eliminate oxidation
Working:
 Powder  through inlet of venturi
 Air through grinding nozzle  transport powder in
the elliptical or circular track
 Turbulent air stream  suspended particles collides
& break
 Impact & attrition forces
 Small particles carried to outlet  removed by
FLUID ENERGY MILL
 Coarser particle  recirculation due to own weight
 Recirculated particles  collision with new incoming
feed stock particles
 Remain in the mill until size is reduced sufficiently
 Particles entrapped by drag of gas  leaves mill 
cyclone separator / bag collector  size separation
Uses:
 Size reduction of antibiotics, vitamins
 Preferred one in case of enhanced absorption/
bioavailability
FLUID ENERGY MILL
Advantages:
 No moving parts  no heat  heat labile
substances : sulphonamides, antibiotics, vitamins;
suspension of gas under pressure  cooling effect
 Rapid & efficient method: 30 min. or less
 No wear  no contamination
Disadvantages:
 Not suitable for soft, tacky & fibrous materials
 Equipment is expensive
EDGE RUNNER MILL
Principle:
 Crushing (compression) due to heavy weight of
the stones
 Shearing force also involved during movement of
stones
Construction:
 Two heavy rollers  weighs several tons
 Rollers move on bed : stones or granite
 Rollers have central shaft & revolves on its axis
 Roller are mounted on horizontal shaft & move
EDGE RUNNER MILL
Working:
 Material placed on bed
 Scrapper  keep the material in the
path of the stone wheel
 The stones  revolves on its axis &
travel around shallow stone bed
 Outer part of wheel  travel a greater distance than
inner wheel  size reduction is achieved by shearing
& crushing
 Ground for a definite period  collected  sieve
 Batch process
EDGE RUNNER MILL
Uses:
 Tough material to fineDisadvantages:
powder  Requires more space
 For plant based Contamination of the
products product
Advantages:  Time consuming
 Does not require process
attention  Not for sticky materials
 Energy consumption is
END RUNNER MILL
Principle:
 Crushing (compression) due to heavy weight of
the steel pestle
 Shearing force also involved during movement of
mortar and pestle
Construction:
 Mechanical mortar & pestle
 Steel mortar fixed to a flanged plate
 Underneath the flanged plate, a bevelled cog
fitting attached to a horizontal shaft bearing a
END RUNNER MILL
 Pestle dumb-bell shaped  flat bottom
 Carries a hinged arm  raised from the mortar
 facilitate emptying & cleaning
 The narrow central portion of pestle is longer
than the band of the arm around it  pestle
can rise & fall over the material.
END RUNNER MILL
Working:
 Material placed in mortar
 Scrapper  keep the material in the path of the
pestle
 The mortar  revolves at high speed
 The pestle is placed in mortar
 The revolving mortar cause the pestle to revolve
 size reduction is achieved by shearing & crushing
 collected  sieved
END RUNNER MILL
Uses:
 Suitable for fine powder
Disadvantages:
 Not suitable for unbroken or slightly broken
materials
 Theories
 Griffith theory
 All Solids contain flaws and microscopic crack
 A Flaws is a structural weakness that may develop into
a crack under the strain
 The weakest flaw in a particle determines its fracture
strength. It controls no. of particles produced by
fracture
 Particles with the weakest flaw fracture most easily and
produce the largest possible pieces
 The next step is another weakest flaw fractured, this
continues until all flaws fractured
 Theories
 Griffith
theory:
 The amount of force to be applied depends on the
crack length and focus of strength at the atomic
bond of the crack apex. 𝒀𝜺
𝑻=
𝒄

 T=tensile strength
 Y=Young’s modulus
 ε = surface energy
 C= critical crack path required for fractured
 A linear relationship b/w the sq. of tensile strength
of mineral and critical height for drop weight
THEORIES OF SIZE REDUCTION / MILLING
A number of theories have been proposed to establish a
relationship between energy input and the degree of size
reduction produced.
•Rittinger’s theory
•Bond’s theory
•Kick’s theory
Rittingers Theory
According to this law, the energy required for size reduction of unit mass is
directly proportional to the new surface area produced. (brittle)
Mathematically, Different materials have different Rittinger’s numbers and
can be obtained by drop weight test.
E=KR(Sn – Si )
KR = Rittinger constant
Sn = New specific surface area
Si = Initial specific surface area
E = Amount of energy
 Kicks Theory
•Kick’s law: The energy used in deforming or fracturing a set of particles of
equivalent shape is proportional to the ratio of the change in size.
𝒅𝒊
• 𝐸=𝐾𝐾 𝑙𝑛
𝒅𝒏
• KK= Kick’s constant,
•di (m) = Diameter of the particle in the initial stage
•dn (m) = Diameter of the new particle
• di/dn = Ratio of the change in size (size reduction ratio)
di/dn is used to evaluate the relative performance of different types of
equipment.
E=ENERGY
 Limitation
Both Kick’s law and Rittinger’s law have been shown to apply over limited
ranges of particle size, provided KR and KK are determined experimentally
by testing in machine of type to be used and material to be crushed. Thus,
they have limited utility.
 Bonds Theory
Bond’s law: The Energy used in crack propagation (size reduction) is
proportional to the length of the new crack produced.
𝐸 = 2 KB (1/ 𝒅𝒏 - 1/ 𝒅𝒊 )
E([Link]-1) = the energy required per mass of feed
KB= Bonds Work Index (work required to reduce a unit weight)
di (m) =Initial diameter of the particle
dn (m) = New diameter of the particle
Bonds Work Index (KB):
The work required to reduce a unit weight from the
theoretical infinite size to 80% passing 100 µm.
This law is useful for rough mill sizing
The work index is useful for comparing the efficiency of
milling operations