Part II

AC circuits

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 Chapter (4)
AC Fundamentals
4.1 Introduction
This chapter introduces the fundamental of Alternating Current (AC) circuits. The
definition of the AC is comprehensively explained. The average and RMS values are derived.

The chapter also gives the behavior of passive element in the AC. The concept of
sinusoidal current and voltage is first introduced as this forms the basis of AC circuit analysis.

4.2 AC definitions
Alternating current is an electric current which periodically reverses direction, in contrast
to direct current (DC) which flows only in one direction. Alternating current is the form in
which electric power is delivered to businesses and residences, and it is the form of electrical
energy that consumers typically use when they plug kitchen appliances, televisions, fans and
electric lamps into a wall socket. A common source of DC power is a battery cell in a flashlight.
The abbreviations AC and DC are often used to mean simply alternating and direct, as when
they modify current or voltage.

The usual waveform of alternating current in most electric power circuits is a sine wave,
whose positive half-period corresponds with positive direction of the current and vice versa.
Cosine wave is considered as special case of the sine, as it is considered as a sine wave
advanced by 90o. The sine and cosine usually are themed as sinusoidal waveforms. AC in
general means any waveform, which has average value. Also this waveform repeat itself after
specific time.

4.2.1 Sinusoidal waveforms

In circuit analysis, the term AC generally refers to a sinusoidal current or voltage signal.
Sinusoids or more commonly sine waves are arguably the most important class of waveforms in
electrical engineering. A common example is the mains voltage which is sinusoidal in nature. In
general, any periodic waveform can be generated using a combination of sinusoidal signals of
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varying frequencies and amplitudes. The two most important parameters of a sine wave are its
amplitude, Vm and frequency, f or time period, T .

Figure 4.1(a) shows a sinusoid and related parameters Vm and T . The frequency is then
given by the reciprocal of the time period i.e f = 1/T. Note that two complete cycles (time
periods) are plotted which clearly shows the periodic nature of a sine wave. Peak to peak
amplitude is also occasionally used given as two times the peak amplitude. Another parameter
that is vital for AC analysis is the phase, φ of the sine wave. This is normally measured with
respect to a reference waveform as shown in Fig. 4.1(b). It is important to point out that
sinusoidal generally refers to either sine or cosine waveform where the cosine wave has the
same shape but is 900 out of phase with respect to the sine wave.

Fig. 4.1: Parameters of a sine wave (a) Amplitude and time period, (b) Phase

The sinusoidal waveform of Fig.4.1 with its additional notation will now be used as a
model in defining a few basic terms. These terms, however, can be applied to any alternating
waveform. It is important to remember as you proceed through the various definitions that the
vertical scaling is in volts or amperes and the horizontal scaling is always in units of time.

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 Waveform: The path traced by a quantity, such as the voltage in Fig. 4.1, plotted as a
function of some variable such as time (as above), position, degrees, radians, temperature, and
so on

Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform at any instant of time; denoted by

lowercase letters (e1, e2).

Peak amplitude: The maximum value of a waveform as measured from its average, or
mean, value, denoted by uppercase letters (such as Em for sources of voltage and Vm for the
voltage drop across a load). For the waveform of Fig. 4.1, the average value is zero volts, and
Em is as defined by the figure.

Peak value: The maximum instantaneous value of a function as measured from the zero-
volt level. For the waveform of Fig. 4.1, the peak amplitude and peak value are the same, since
the average value of the function is zero volts.

Peak-to-peak value: Denoted by Ep-p or Vp-p, the full voltage between positive and
negative peaks of the waveform, that is, the sum of the magnitude of the positive and negative
peaks.

Periodic waveform: A waveform that continually repeats itself after the same time
interval. The waveform of Fig. 4.1 is a periodic waveform.

Period (T ): The time interval between successive repetitions of a periodic waveform (the
period T1 _ T2 _ T3 in Fig. 4.1), as long as successive similar points of the periodic waveform
are used in determining T.

Cycle: The portion of a waveform contained in one period of time. The cycles within T1,
T2, and T3 of Fig. 4.1 may appear different in Fig. 4.1, but they are all bounded by one period
of time and therefore satisfy the definition of a cycle.

Mathematically, a sinusoidal signal is given by the general form

V(t) = Vm sine (ωt +φ ) (4.1)

Where
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 Vm : amplitude or peak value, ω=2π f = 2 π / T angular frequency in rad/s, φ is phase
angle in degrees or radian.

when φ = 900 , sin(ω t + 900 ) = cos(ω t )

T is the time of complete cycle; it has the unit of second (s)

f: The frequency, it is the reciprocal of the periodic time. The frequency is a number of
complete cycles per second or defined as Hertz(Hz)

f=1/T (4.2)

4.3 Average and RMS values

4.3.1 Mean or Average Value

Given a discrete sequence of signals such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 the average value is calculated as

follows

Average Value = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5) / 5 = 3

The problem is that there are an infinite number of numbers to add up, then divide by
infinity. One approach is to divide up the interval and use n left or right samples of the value of
the function, add them up, then divide by n. If we take the limit as n approaches infinity, then
we will get the average value. The formula for the average value of a function, f, over the
interval from a to b is:

(4.3)

One way to think about this is to rewrite this formula as

(4.4)

Think of (b - a) as the width of a rectangle, and average as the height. Then the average
value of a function on an interval is the height of a rectangle that has the same width as the
interval and has the same area as the function on that interval.

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 For a continuous periodic waveform such as a sinusoid, the mean value can be found by
averaging all the instantaneous values during one cycle. This is given by:
𝑡
Vav = 1 / T ∫0 v(t) dt (4.5)

Clearly, the average value of a complete sine wave is 0 because of equal positive and
negative half cycles. This is regardless of the peak amplitude.

Example : Average value of a fully rectified sine wave

By taking the absolute value of a sine wave, a fully rectified waveform can be generated. In
practise, this can be achieved by employing the bridge circuit shown in Figure 4.2(a) with sine
wave as the excitation signal. The output waveform across the load,

RL is depicted in Fig. 3.2(b) with a time period of T /2 where T is the time period of a
normal sine wave. Thus:

Fig. 4.2: A bridge rectifier and the resulting fully rectified sine waveform
𝑇/2
Vav = 2 / T ∫0 v(t) dt , Vav = 2 Vm/ π (4.6)

A bridge rectifier circuit is common in DC power supplies and is mainly employed to

convert an AC input signal to a DC output.

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 Average value of a half rectified sine wave A half wave rectification circuit is depicted in
Fig. 4.3(a) and the resulting waveform is also shown in Fig. 4.3(b). In this case, the negative
half cycle of the sine wave is clipped to zero and hence the time period T of the waveform
remains the same. Therefore,

Fig. 4.3: A half wave rectification circuit and the resulting output.
1 𝑇/2 1 𝑇
Vav = ∫0 v(t) dt + ∫𝑇/2 0 dt
𝑇 𝑇

Vav = Vm/ π

A half wave rectifier is also commonly employed in DC power supplies for AC to DC

conversion.

This requires just one diode as opposed to four in a bridge rectifier. However, the average
value is half of the full wave as given by Equation 3.4.

Example 2 (try with your self)

Determine the average value of the waveforms of Fig. 4.5

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 Figure 4.5

4.3.2 Effective or RMS Value

This section will begin to relate dc and ac quantities with respect to the power delivered to
a load. It will help us determine the amplitude of a sinusoidal ac current required to deliver the
same power as a particular dc current. The question frequently arises, How is it possible for a
sinusoidal ac quantity to deliver a net power if, over a full cycle, the net current in any one
direction is zero (average value _0)? It would almost appear that the power delivered during the
positive portion of the sinusoidal waveform is withdrawn during the negative portion, and since
the two are equal in magnitude, the net power delivered is zero. However, understand that
irrespective of direction, current of any magnitude through a resistor will deliver power to that
resistor. In other words, during the positive or negative portions of a sinusoidal ac current,
power is being delivered at each instant of time to the resistor. The power delivered at each
instant will, of course, vary with the magnitude of the sinusoidal ac current, but there will be a
net flow during either the positive or the negative pulses with a net flow over the full cycle. The
net power flow will equal twice that delivered by either the positive or the negative regions of
sinusoidal quantity. A fixed relationship between ac and dc voltages and currents can bederived
from the experimental setup shown in Fig. 4.6. A resistor in a water bath is connected by
switches to a dc and an ac supply. If switch 1 is closed, a dc current I, determined by the
resistance R and battery voltage E, will be established through the resistor R. The temperature

reached by the water is determined by the dc power dissipated in the form of heat by the
resistor.
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 Fig. 4.6

The effective or root mean square (RMS) value of a periodic signal is equal to the
magnitude of a DC signal which produces the same heating effect as the periodic signal when
applied across a load resistance.

Consider a periodic signal, v(t), then

𝑇
Mean Square = Vav = 1 / T ∫0 v 2 (t) dt

𝑇
Root Mean Square = √ 1 / T ∫0 v 2 (t) dt
(4.5)

The RMS value of a sine wave is found out to be

𝑉𝑚
Vrms = (4.6)
√2

The mains voltage of 230 V in the UK is its RMS value. A multimeter measures RMS voltages
whereas an oscilloscope measures peak amplitudes. Hence the mains voltage when displayed
on an oscilloscope will read 230 × √2 = 325.27 V All the above expressions are independent of
the phase angle φ.

4.4 Passive elements in steady-state AC circuits

Electrical and electronic circuits consist of connecting together many different components
to form a complete and closed circuit. The three main passive components used in any circuit
are the: Resistor, the Capacitor and the Inductor. All three of these passive components have

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one thing in common, they limit the flow of electrical current through a circuit but in very
different ways.

Electrical current can flow through a circuit in either of two ways. If it flows in one steady
direction only it is classed as direct current, (DC). If the electrical current alternates in both
directions back and forth it is classed as alternating current, (AC). Although they present an
impedance within a circuit, passive components in AC circuits behave very differently to those
in DC circuits.

Passive components consume electrical energy and therefore can not increase or amplify the
power of any electrical signals applied to them, simply because they are passive and as such
will always have a gain of less than one. Passive components used in electrical and electronic
circuits can be connected in an infinite number of ways as shown below, with the operation of
these circuits depending on the interaction between their different electrical properties.

Passive Components in AC Circuits

Where: R is resistance, C is capacitance and L is inductance.

Resistors whether used in DC or AC circuits will always have the same value of resistance
no matter what the supply frequency. This is because resistors are classed to be pure having
parasitic properties such as infinite capacitance C = ∞ and zero inductance L = 0. Also for a
resistive circuit the voltage and current are always in-phase so the power consumed at any
instant can be found by multiplying the voltage by the current at that instant.

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 Capacitors and inductors on the other hand, have a different type of AC resistance known
as reactance, (XL and XC). Reactance also impedes the flow of current, but the amount of
reactance is not a fixed quantity for one inductor or capacitor in the same way that a resistor has
a fixed value of resistance. The reactance value of an inductor or a capacitor depends upon the
frequency of the supply current as well as on the DC value of the component itself.

The following is a list of passive components commonly used in AC circuits along with
their corresponding equations which can be used to find their value or circuit current. Note that
a theoretically perfect (pure) capacitor or inductor does not have any resistance. However in the
real world they will always have some resistive value no matter how small.

Purely Resistive Circuit

Resistor – Resistors regulate, impede or set the flow of current through a particular path or
impose a voltage reduction in an electrical circuit as a result of this current flow. Resistors have
a form of impedance which is simply termed resistance, ( R ) with the resistive value of a
resistor being measured in Ohms, Ω. Resistors can be of either a fixed value or a variable value
(potentiometers).

Purely Capacitive Circuit

Capacitor – The capacitor is a component which has the ability or “capacity” to store
energy in the form of an electrical charge like a small battery. The capacitance value of a
capacitor is measured in Farads, F. At DC a capacitor has infinite (open-circuit) impedance,
( XC ) while at very high frequencies a capacitor has zero impedance (short-circuit).

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 Purely Inductive Circuit

Inductor – An inductor is a coil of wire that induces a magnetic field within itself or within
a central core as a direct result of current passing through the coil. The inductance value of an
inductor is measured in Henries, H. At DC an inductor has zero impedance (short-circuit), while
at high frequencies an inductor has infinite (open-circuit) impedance, ( XL ).

Series AC Circuits

Passive components in AC circuits can be connected together in series combinations to

form RC, RL and LC circuits as shown.

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Series RC Circuit

Series RL Circuit

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 Series LC Circuit

Parallel AC Circuits

Passive components in AC circuits can also be connected together in parallel combinations

to form RC, RL and LC circuits as shown.

Parallel RC Circuit

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 Parallel RL Circuit

Parallel LC Circuit

Passive RLC Circuits

All three passive components in AC circuits can also be connected together in both
series RLC and parallel RLC combinations as shown below.

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 Series RLC Circuit

Parallel RLC Circuit

We have seen above that passive components in AC circuits behave very differently than
when connected in a DC circuit due to the influence of frequency, ( ƒ ). In a purely resistive
circuit, the current is in-phase with the voltage. In a purely capacitive circuit the current in the
capacitor leads the voltage by 90o and in a purely inductive circuit the current lags the voltage
by 90o.
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 The opposition to current flow through a passive component in an AC circuit is
called: resistance, R for a resistor, capacitive reactance, XC for a capacitor and inductive
reactance, XL for an inductor. The combination of resistance and reactance is
called Impedance.

In a series circuit, the phasor sum of the voltages across the circuits components is equal to
the supply voltage, VS. In a parallel circuit, the phasor sum of the currents flowing in each
branch and therefore through each of the circuits components is equal to the supply current, IS.

For both parallel and series connected RLC circuits, when the supply current is “in-phase”
with the supply voltage the circuit resonance occurs as XL = XC. A Series Resonance Circuit is
known as an Acceptor Circuit. A Parallel Resonance Circuit is known as a Rejecter Circuit.

4.5 Impedance
The magnitudes of the ratio of voltage to current across the three circuit elements can be
written as:
V
| R| = R (4.7)
Im

V
| L | = ωL (4.8)
Im

V 1
| C| = (4.8)
Im ωC

1
Where ωL and have the dimensions of resistance ( Ω ) and are termed as inductive
ωC

reactance and capacitive reactance respectively i.e.

XL = ωL → inductive reactance
1
XC = → inductive reactance
ωC

The impedance, Z can now be defined by the following relationship

Impedance = Resistance ± j Reactance

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 Or Z = R + j X where j represents a 900 phase shift

X is positive for inductance and negative for capacitance. The magnitude and phase of the
impedance can be calculated as follows:

|Z| = √(R2 + (X 2 ) (4.9)

X
φ = arctan ( ± ) (4.10)
R

Admittance The reciprocal of impedance is called admittance (Y ) and is measured in Ω-1.

1 I
Mathematically Y = =
Z V

Also Y = G ± jB, where G and B represents conductance and susceptance respectively. For
a purely resistive or purely inductive/capacitive circuit
1 1
G = and B =
R X

For a combination of resistance and reactance

1 1
Y= =
Z R+jX

multiply and divide by the complex conjugate

R− jX
Y=
R2 +X2

R X
Y= − j
R2 +X2 R2 +X2

R X
G= & B=
R2 +X2 R2 +X2

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 4.6 Problems
Problem (1). For the periodic waveform of Fig.
a. Find the period T.
b. How many cycles are shown?
c. What is the frequency?
d. Determine the positive amplitude and peak-to-peak

value (think!).

Fig. 4.7

Problem (2). Repeat Problem 1 for the periodic waveform of Fig.4..8 and Fig. 4.9

Fig. 4.8

Fig. 4.9
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Problem (3). Find the period of a periodic waveform whose frequency is
a. 25 Hz. b. 35 MHz.
c. 55 kHz. d. 1 Hz.
Problem (4)Find the frequency of a repeating waveform whose
period is
a. 1/60 s. b. 0.01 s.
c. 34 ms. d. 25 ms.
Problem (5). Find the period of a sinusoidal waveform that completes
80 cycles in 24 ms.
Problem (6). If a periodic waveform has a frequency of 20 Hz, how long (in seconds) will it
take to complete five cycles?
Problem (7). What is the frequency of a periodic waveform that completes 42 cycles in 6 s?
Problem (8). Sketch a periodic square wave a frequency of 20,000 Hz and a peak value of

10 mV.

a. Determine the period.

b. Find the frequency.
c. Determine the average value.

Problem (9). Find the average value of the periodic waveforms of Fig. 4.10 over one full cycle.

Fig. 4.10

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Problem (11). Find the average value of the periodic waveforms of Fig.4.11 over one full
cycle.

Fig. 4.11

Problem (12). Find the rms values of the following sinusoidal waveforms:
a. v _ 20 sin 754t
b. v _ 7.07 sin 377t
c. i _ 0.006 sin(400t _ 20°)
d. i _ 16 _ 10_3 sin(377t _ 10°)
Problem (13). Write the sinusoidal expressions for voltages and currents having the following
rms values at a frequency of 60 Hz with zero phase shift:
a. 1.414 V
b. 70.7 V
c. 0.06 A
d. 24 mA
Problem (14). Find the rms value of the periodic waveform of Fig 4.12 over one full cycle.
Problem (15).. Find the rms value of the periodic waveform of Fig. 4.13 over one full cycle.

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 Fig. 4.11 Fig. 4.12

Problem (15).., what is the value of the frequency if XL=20ohm and the circuit is
composed of three inductors each 10mH

a. Connected in Series
b. Connected in parallel

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