TOPIC 10

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Current electricity: is the flow of electric charge in a conductor from high
potential energy to low potential energy.
OR
Electric current: is the rate at which electric charges pass through a conductor
Electric current (I) = Quantity of charge (Q)
Time (t)
I = Q/t
 In solids, especially metals the current is carried by flow of negative charges
(electrons) while in gases and liquid solutions the current is carried by flow
of ions (positively and negatively charged ions).
NB, gases can conduct electricity at very high voltage and low pressure.
 The SI unit of electric current is Ampere (A)
 One Ampere is the flow of electric charge of 1 coulomb in a conductor per
unit time (1 second).
 Other common units of electric current are:
 Mill Ampere (mA) = 10 -3A = 0.001A
 Kilo Ampere (kA) = 1,000A
 Mega Ampere (MA) = 106A = 1,000,000A
 Micro Ampere (µA) = 10 -6A
 Giga Ampere (GA) = 109 A

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE / VOLTAGE

Electric Potential difference: is the work done per unit charge in moving electric
charge from one point to another.
 It is the push needed to enable electric charges to flow in a conductor
Potential difference (pd) = Work done (W)
Charge moved (Q)
Pd = W.d
Q
 The SI unit of potential difference is Volts (V)
 One volt is the work done of 1 joule per 1 coulomb in moving a charge
from one point to another.
 It is obtained in a conductor across circuit components
  It is measured by using Voltmeter

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
Electromotive force (e.m.f): is the potential difference across the cell terminals
when there is no current flowing through it.
 It sets up potential difference across the various circuit components;
therefore it is the sum of all potential differences in circuit components.
 The SI unit of Electromotive force is volts (V)
 It is obtained across terminals of a cell of battery
 It is measured by using a voltmeter
 Electromotive force of a dry cell is 1.5 V
 Electromotive of a simple cell is about 1.0 V

OTHER COMMON TERMINOLOGIES:

Terminal voltage: Is the voltage across the cell when the current is being drawn.
Resistance: is the opposing force to a flowing current. It is measured in ohms (Ω)
Electric circuit: is the closed path around which the electric charge moves.

Loss of energy as the current flows through a conductor in a circuit

As the electric current flows in a conductor it loses energy due to electrical
resistance in the circuit that is caused by the friction between a moving charge
and the surface of a conductor.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE AND ELECTRIC CURRENT

 The relationship between electric current and potential difference is described
by ohm’s law.
Ohm’s law
State that ‘’The potential difference across a conductor is directly proportional
to the electric current flowing through it provided that temperature and other
physical factors remains constant’’
From Ohm’s law: V α I
V = KI
But K = R
V = IR
 Limitation of ohm’s Law
-It does not apply to some electrolytes e.g dilute H2SO4
-It does not apply for conduction of electricity in gases
-It does not hold in semiconductors (diodes and transistors

FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR

The following are the factors which affect the resistance of a conductor
1. Temperature
 For most metals resistance increases with increase in temperature.
2. Length of the conductor
 Resistance increases with increase in length of a conductor
R α L ………………………………………………………………..(i)
3. Cross – sectional area
 When cross-sectional area is increased, resistance of a conductor
decreases. This means resistance of a conductor is inversely
proportional to cross-sectional area.
R α 1/A ………………………………………(ii)
4. Nature of the material of the conductor
 Resistance of a conductor depends on nature of the material making
up the conductor. For example, a steel wire has a higher resistance
than a copper wire of the same dimensions and temperature.
RESISTIVITY OF THE MATERIAL
Resistivity: is the ability of a material to oppose the flow of an electric current
By combining equation (i) and (ii)
RαL
 A
KL
R=
A
But constant K is called resistivity (ρ)
ρL
R=
A
RA
ρ=
L
 The SI unit of resistivity is Ohm-meter (Ωm)
Example 1; What is the resistance of a copper wire of length 20m and a diameter
of 0.08cm? resistivity of a copper wire = 1.68 x 10 -8 Ωm
Soln
Length (L) = 20m
Diameter (D) = 0.08cm
 radius (r) = 0.08 = 0.04cm = 0.0004m
2
Resistivity (ρ) = 1.68 x 10 -8 Ωm
From: R = ρ L
A

Example 2; An iron wire has a length of 0.5 m, a diameter of 1.6 mm and

resistivity of 9.71 x 10 -8 Ωm.
(a) What is the resistance of the wire?
(b) What will be the current in the wire if it is connected to a 9V battery?
Soln
Length of a wire = 0.5m, Diameter = 1.6 mm
 radius (r) = 1.6 = 0.8 mm = 0.0008m
2
Resistivity (ρ) = 9.71 x 10 -8 Ωm
(a) Resistance of a wire
From: R = ρ L
A
R=ρL
∏r2
R = 9.67 x 10-8 Ωm x 0.5m
3.14 x (8 x 10 -4)2 m2
Example 3; A wire of length 1.2m and diameter of 0.64 mm has a resistance of
2.4Ω. Calculate the resistance of wire of length 0.80m and diameter of 0.32 mm
of the same material.
Soln
Length of wire (L1) = 1.2m
Diameter (D1)= 0.64 mm
 r1 = 0.64 = 0.32mm = 0.00032m
2
Length (L2) = 0.8 m, Resistance of a wire
(R1) = 2.4Ω, Diameter (D2) = 0.32 mm
 r2 = 0.32 = 0.16mm = 0.00016m
2
L
R∝
A
R 1 A 1 R2 A 2
=
L1 L2

RESISTORS
A resistor: is the device used to oppose the flow of electric current and control
the magnitude of current and voltage in a circuit.

COMMON TYPES OF RESISTORS

1. Wire wound resistors. Example: Rheostat

 They are made up by winding wires in a metallic alloys. The wires

used have high resistance to the flow of electric current, for example
Nichrome and Constantan
 They can provide fixed or variable resistance
 They can pass large currents without overheating
 They are used in power supplies and other high current circuits
2. Carbon resistors. (also called electronic resistors)
 They are made up by mixing carbon granules with varying amount of
clay and moulding them into cylinders
 They provide fixed resistance
 They have very large range of resistance value, for example 10Ω to 1
x 107Ω
 They are used in electronic circuits
 FIXED AND VARIABLE RESISTORS
Resistors can also be classified into two groups as follows:
1. Fixed resistors
Are resistors whose resistor value cannot be changed. For example, Carbon
resistors
2. Variable resistors
Are resistors whose resistor value can be changed (adjusted). For example,
rheostat, potentiometers, thermistors and photoresistors

COMBINING RESTORS
Resistors can be arranged in Series or in Parallel arrangement
SERIES ARRANGEMENT
In this arrangement:
 Electric current flowing in the circuit is the same at all points in a
conductor.
 The sum of potential differences across external resistors is equal to the
potential difference across the battery.

PARALLEL COMBINATION
In this arrangement:
 Voltage across external resistors is the same.
 Electric current use different path for each resistors

I = I 1 + I2 + I3
From ohm’s law: I = V/R
V V V V
= + +
R T R1 R2 R3
 1 1 1 1
(V ) =V ( + )
RT R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
= + +
R T R1 R2 R3
Therefore, the reciprocal of the total resistance is the sum of the reciprocals of
the individual external resistances.

Example 4
From the circuit below:

(a) What is the total resistance of the circuit? (b) What is the current flowing in
the circuit?
(c) What is the potential drop across each resistor? (d) What is the electric
potential at A?
Soln
R1 = 4Ω, R2 = 5Ω and R3 = 6Ω
V = 9V
(a) Total resistance
From: RT = R1 + R2 + R3
RT = 4Ω + 5Ω + 6Ω = 15Ω
Therefore, the total resistance is 15Ω
(c) Potential drop across each resistor
V1 = IR1
V1 = 0.6A x 4Ω = 2.4V
The potential drop across 4Ω is 2.4 V
V2 = IR2
V2 = 0.6A x 5Ω = 3.0V
The potential drop across 5Ω is 3.0 V
Example 5; Determine the current reading on the ammeter in the circuit below

Soln
Voltage, V = 9V
Group of resistors 6Ω, 3Ω and 6Ω are in
parallel, let their total resistance be RA
1 =1+1+1
RA 6 3 6
4
1 = 1+2+1= 6
RA 6
6
RA = 4 = 1.5 Ω

INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL

Is the resistance occurring within a cell itself.
 Internal resistance of a dry cell varies from 0.5V to 1V depending on the size
of a dry cell
 Consider a cell of e.m.f (E) and internal resistance (r) connected across an
external resistance (R) as shown in the figure below:
Whwer;
R = External resistance
r = internal resistance

Example 6
A battery of e.m.f 12V and internal resistance of 1.5Ω is connected to a 4Ω
resistor. Calculate: (a) total resistance
(b). Current through the battery
(c) the pd across the terminals
Soln
(b) Current through the
battery
Total current flowing in the
circuit (I)
E = I(R + r)
E 12V
I= = =2.18 A
R T 5.5 Ω
Since the internal resistance and
external resistance are in series,
then the current flowing through
them is the same.
Therefore, the current
flowing through the battery
is 2.18A
(c). The pd across the terminals
The voltage across terminals of a cell is the same as the voltage across
external resistors
V = IR
V = 2.18A x 4Ω = 8.72V
Therefore, the potential difference across the terminals is 8.72V
Example 7; The pd across the terminals of a cell is 1.1V when the current of 0.2A
is being drawn from the cell. If the pd across the cell is 1.3V when current of 0.1A
being drawn, determine internal resistance and e.m.f of the cell.
Soln
Case I E = I(R + r)
E = V + Ir
Case II

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Wheatstone bridge: is an electrical bridge circuit used to measure the resistance
of a conductor.
For example:
(i) A galvanometer which connects two parallel branches containing four resistors
in which three of them have a known resistance and one resistor has unknown
resistance.

At a balancing point
(when galvanometer reads 0)
VAB = VAC ............................... (i)
VBD = VCD ...............................(ii)
IAB = IBD = I2 and IAC = ICD = I1
Dividing equation (i) by
equation (ii)
V AB V AC
=
V BD V CD
I 2 R1 I 1 R 2
=
I 2 R3 I 1 R x
R1 R 2
=
R3 Rx
Rx = R2 x R 3
R1

Generally: R1Rx =R2R3

Hence the fourth unknown resistance can be found.
(i) A meter bridge

𝑹𝟏 ∝ 𝑳𝟏 … … … … … … … . . (𝒊), 𝑹𝟐 ∝ 𝑳𝟐 … … … …
METER GRIDGE RULE

… … … … . . (𝒊𝒊)

HEATING EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT

Heating effect of an electric current is the production of heat due to the flowing
current. It is applied in electric kettles, electric iron and electric fires.
Factors affecting quantity of heat generated by flow of current
(i) Resistance of the conductor
 As the resistance of a conductor increases, the production of heat energy
also increases. For example a constantan wire which has higher resistance
become hotter than a copper wire of the same dimensions when
connected to a voltage supply.

(ii) Magnitude of the current

 Heat energy increases with increase in electric current
(iii) Time taken
 When a current flows for a longer time, the more heat is produced.

JOULE’S LAW
It describes the relationship between quantity of heat, electric current and the
resistance of the conductor.
Joule’s law state that ‘’the heat produced by an electrical current in a conductor
for a given time is directly proportional to the resistance of the conductor
multiplied to the square of the current’’
H α RI2
H = t IR2
H = I2Rt
ELECTRICAL POWER
Electrical power is the rate at which an electrical appliance consumes energy.
P=H
t
P = Itv
t
P = IV
𝑽𝟐
∴ 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐𝑹 𝑶𝒓 𝑷 = 𝑰𝑽 𝑶𝒓 𝑷 =
𝑹

ELECTRICAL APPLIENCES
A nichrome wire which has a high melting point is suitable for making electrical
appliances.
Example: electrical iron, kettles, heaters, cookers, bulbs, fridges, televisions, and
air conditioners.
 Electrical heater is made up of a thick wire with high melting point because it
should not melt easily when the current exceeds, instead it should continue to
heat the liquid
Rating
Rating: is the rate at which an electrical appliance consumes energy.
 For example, if a bulb is labelled 60W, 240V it means that the bulb consumes
60 joules per second when connected to 240.

MEASURING ELECTRICAL POWER

The power companies usually measure the electrical energy consumed in
kilowatt-hours. (KWh)
One kilowatt-hour.
Is the electrical power of 1kW consumed in 1 hour by an electrical appliance.
1kwh = 1000 x 3600 J
 1kwh = 3600,000J
Example 8; Three resistors with resistances 9Ω, 12Ω and 15Ω are connected in
series across a 12V battery. Calculate the energy dissipated by the 12Ω resistor in
10S
Soln
Resistances R1 = 9Ω, R2 = 12Ω and R3 = 15Ω
Total Voltage (VT) = 12V, Time (t) = 10S
Total resistance (RT) = R1 + R2 + R3
RT = (9 + 12 + 15) Ω = 36Ω
Current flowing in the circuit
V T 12 V
I= = =0.33 A
RT 36 Ω

Example 9; A television set rated 200 W is switched on for 5 hours every day. How
much energy does it consume in 30 days?
Soln
Power (P) = 200W
Time (t) = 5 hours per day and number of days = 30
From : H = IVt
H=Pxt
H = 200 x 5 x 3600 x 30 J
H = 108000000J = 1.08 x 108 J
Therefore, the energy consumed in 30 days is 1.08 x 108 J
Example 10; A house has five rooms, each with a 60W, 240V bulb. If the bulbs are
switched on from 7:00 p.m to 10:30 p.m, determine the power in kilowatt-hour
consumed by the bulbs per day.
Soln
Number of bulbs = 5
Power of one bulb (P) = 60W = 0.06KW for one hour
Time interval 7:00 p.m to 10:30 p.m (t = 3.5 hours)
Power (Energy consumed) in kilowatt-hour
Energy = P x t = (0.06W x 5 ) x 3.5 hours
= 0.3 x 3.5 = 1.05 KWh
Therefore, the power consumed in each day is 1.05 KWh

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION
There are three important cables in domestic power supply, these are:
(i) Live (L) (ii) Neutral (N) (iii) Earth (E)
 (ii)
Live cable
 It is coloured red or brown
 It is 240V relative to the neutral cable
 It can give an electric shock on touching with bare hands
Neutral cable
 It is coloured black or blue
 It is earthed at power station that enable the current flowing in this cable to
remain at zero potential, hence it cannot give an electrical shock on touching
with bare hands
Earth cable
 It is coloured yellow or green
 It provides extra safety especially in electrical appliances
 It cannot give electrical shock on touching with bare hands

THREE PIN PLUG AND TWO PINPLUG

THREE PIN PLUG

 It has three pins: one for the live cable, another for the neutral cable and
the other for the earth cable
 It has a fuse that is connected in series with a live cable
TWO PIN PLUG
 It has two pins: one for the live cable and the other for the neutral cable
 It does not have an earth pin
 It does not have a fuse
FUSE
Fuse: is a safety device used to protect an electric circuit against excess current.
 It is made up of a thin wire with low melting point because it should melt
easily when the current exceeds a given value.
 It is connected in series with the circuit to be protected
 It must be replaced before the circuit work again

Types of Fuses
(a) Rewireable fuses
 In this kind of fuse, the fuse element is carried in a removable fuse link
made of porcelain or other insulating material
 (b) Cartridge fuses
• It consists of a porcelain tube with metal end caps to which the fuse
element is attached

Mechanisms:
• The fuse works on the principle of the heating effect of an electric
current
• It is always connected in series with the electrical circuit to protect
from over current in the running cables
• When the excessive current or heat is generated due to heavy
current flows in the circuit, the fuse melts down due to the low
melting point of the element and it opens (breaks) the circuit. Then
the fuse can be replaced with the new one with suitable ratings

Applications of fuses
Fuses are used in:-

• Electrical appliances (devices)

• Automobiles such as car, trucks and other vehicles
• Scanners, portable electronics, hard disk drives
• Fuses in capacitors, transformers, power converters, motor starters,
power transformers

What happen if we don’t use fuse?

• If we don’t use fuses, electrical faults occur in the wiring and it
burns the wire and electrical appliances and this may start fire at
home.
Also the lives of television, computers, radios and other home appliances
may put at risk

Circuit Breaker
Circuit breaker: is a switch that cuts off electric current to protect the circuit when
the current exceeds a given value.
 It is connected in series with the circuit to be protected
Mechanism of Circuit Breakers
• When current exceeds, it increases the temperature and
bimetallic strip bends to push latch mechanism, enables the
spring to cut off current (see the figure (ii) above)

Circuit-breakers offer the following advantages compared to fuses.

• Circuit-breakers respond quicker than fuses.
• Circuit-breakers are more reliable.
• Circuit-breakers are more sensitive.
• Unlike fuses which only operate once and need to be
replaced a circuit-breaker can be reset.
What is Earthing?
• If there is a fault in your electrical installation you could
get an electric shock if you touch a live metal part. This is
because the electricity may use your body as a path from
the live part to the earth part.
• Earthing is used to protect you from an electric
shock.

Domestic Wiring Circuit

• Electrical wiring (A wiring system) is a network of wires that

connect various accessories for the distribution of electrical energy
from the supplier metre board to a variety of electrical appliances
such as lamps, fans, and other domestic appliances via regulating
and safety devices.
Types of Domestic Wiring Circuit

a. Ring main circuit

 b. Lighting circuit

Ring Main Circuit

• This is a cable which begins and ends at the consumer unit. Its
three cables (Live, Neutral and Earth) are forming ring around part
of the house. Its fuse is of 30A fuse

Lighting Circuit
• In this circuit the first lamp connected from the customer unit, in
turn is connected to the second lamp and so on.

Types of Lighting Circuit

• Loop – in lighting circuit

• Junction box lighting circuit

Loop In Lighting Circuit

• All three cables from consumer unit run to each ceiling roses,
one after another. From each rose another set of cables runs to the
switch which operates the light

Junction Box Lighting Circuit

• All three cables from consumer unit run to one junction box to
another, where one cable runs to the light and another run to the
switch for that light.

Repairing Electrical Appliances Faults

• Multimeter and Live mains lead indicator are devices

important when checking electrical appliances faults.

Multimeter
• Multimeter is the single meter for measuring current (both a.c
and d.c), voltage and resistance

Live Mains Lead Indicator (Testor)

 • Is an electronic device used for testing the flow of electric
current

Devices and materials used for checking and repairing of electrical faults
includes:
(i) Multimeter
(ii) Live mains lead indicator
(iii) Fuse
(iv) Connecting wires
CAUSES OF ELECTRICAL FAULTS IN ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES
The following are the common causes of an electrical fault in an electrical
appliance:
(i) Melting of a fuse due to excess current
(ii) Melting of cables due to overheating
(iii) Loose connections
(iv) Short circuit
(v) Rust in the metals of an electrical appliance
(vi) Dust or other dirty in an electrical appliance
SHORT CIRCUIT
This is a local connection of low resistance in a circuit which makes excessive
current to flow in it.
 It causes current to flow in a path that was not planned
 It causes overheating of wires and the cell looses voltage easily

STEPS FOR REPAIRING ELECTRICAL FAULTS

(i) Check if there is a power supply in the socket. This is done by using a live
mains lead indicator.
(ii) Check if there is a fault in the cable from the socket to the appliance
 If the cable has a fault, replace it with a proper one
(iii) Check if a fuse is working. This can be done by using a multimeter
 If the fuse is not working, replace it with a proper one
(iv) Check if there a loose connection or short circuit
  This can be fixed by making a proper circuit connection
(v) Check if there rust in the metals of an electrical appliance
 This can be fixed by cleaning or repairing with a proper material
(vi) Check if there is dust or other dirty in an electrical appliance
 This can be fixed by cleaning the dirty parts

CELLS
A cell is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
 It is a set-up used to cause a flow of electric in a conductor

TYPES OF CELLS
The two types of cells are
(i) Primary cell/ voltaic cell
(ii) Secondary cell / Accumulator
PRIMARY CELL
Is a cell working by mechanism of electrolysis and cannot be recharged when the
voltage is low
 It is formed by dipping two different metals called electrodes in a solution
called electrolyte in which movement of ions between electrodes cause
electric current.
 Examples of primary cells includes a simple cell, Leclanch’e cell and a dry
cell
Diagram of a simple cell

Reactions taking place

 2H2O H2 + 2(OH)
 H2SO4 2H + SO42-
+
 OH- and SO42- will be moving towards the zinc plate and SO42- will be first
discharged.
 Zn2+ + SO42- ZnSO4
+
H will be moving towards the copper plate
 2H+ + 2e H2

DEFFECTS OF A SIMPLE CELL

There are two defects of a simple cell which reduces the flow of electric current
as the hydrogen bubbles are formed and insulates the electrodes. These are: local
action and polarization

(i) LOCAL ACTION

Is the formation of hydrogen bubbles on the zinc plate.
 It is caused by impurities in the zinc which react with the acid
 It can be reduced by:
(i) Using a pure zinc ( amalgam)
(ii) Rubbing mercury on zinc plate to obtain a pure zinc (amalgam)

(ii) POLARISATION
Is the formation of hydrogen bubbles on the copper plate.
 It can be reduced by adding a depolariser such as potassium dichromate
which oxides the hydrogen to water

LECLANCHE’ CELL
Is a simple cell which consists of a carbon as anode and zinc as cathode and
ammonium chloride solution (NH4Cl) as the electrolyte.
 There is no local action
 Manganese dioxide (MnO2) is put to reduce polarisation.

DRY CELL
A dry consists of carbon as anode, zinc as cathode and electrolyte is a paste of
manganese dioxide, ammonium chloride and zinc chloride
 It is a modification of a Leclanche’ cell
 The electrolyte in a dry cell is a pest while the electrolyte in wet cell (e.g
Leclanche cell) is liquid
Diagram of a dry cell

Uses of Dry Cell

• It is used to operate on radios, electronic calculators and other
small electrical devices

Advantages of Dry Cell

• It is portable
• The chemicals for its production are relatively cheap
• It has a relatively high e.m.f
• It is able to recover from its polarized

Disadvantage of dry cell

• Cannot be recharged thus disposed after use
ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS
1. SERIES ARRANGEMENT
 The total voltage across the cells is equal to the sum of the voltage of the
individual cells.
 The cells provides a current that flows in the same path
1.5v 1.5V 1.5V
 PARALLEL ARRANGEMENT
 The total voltage of all cells connected in parallel is the same as that of a
single cell
 Each cell sets up a current in a different path
 It is used when the required current is larger than that of a single cell
can produce.

SECONDARY CELL
It can be recharged when the cell runs down. Example: lead-acid cell and nickel-
ferrous cell.
Lead acid accumulator
It consists of lead plates and sulphuric acid as the main components . For example
a car battery.
 After running a constant current for a short time, the plates develop a
potential difference of about 2.0V or slightly more.

Charging the lead acid battery

This is done by connecting a specific battery charger in forward bias with the lead
acid battery
 The aim of charging a battery is to drive all the acid out of the plates and
return it to the electrolyte so as to maintain the concentration of acid.
 When does the battery need recharging?
(i) When the battery voltage is low
(ii) When the battery fails to start up the flow of current in an electrical
appliance
(iii) When the acid level is low

Discharging the lead acid battery

This is done by allowing the battery to provide energy to electrical appliances.
This lowers the concentration of the sulphuric acid

ADVANTAGES OF LEAD ACID BATTERY OVER DRY CELL

(i) Lead acid battery can be re-charged
 (ii) Lead acid battery have a very low internal resistance hence provides
larger current than a dry cell for a small terminal voltage
DISAVANTAGES OF LEAD ACID BATTERY OVER DRY CELL
(i) Lead acid battery has larger size hence it is not portable
(ii) Lead acid battery has larger weight
(iii) Lead acid battery is expensive to purchase it as compared to a dry cell
TAKING CARE OF ACCUMULATORS
(i) Add distilled water to maintain acid level. Never add acid
(ii) Charge the battery regularly and it should never be left uncharged.
(iii) The terminals should be kept clean and greased
(iv) Avoid rough handling. Never drop it down
(v) Do not short circuit the battery
(vi) Do not exceed the specified rate when charging the battery.
USES OF LEAD ACID BATTERIES
(i) To provide power in motor vehicles
(ii) To provide power in domestic electrical appliances such as radio,
television, and bulbs.
(iii) They are used together with solar panels to store and provide electrical
energy from solar energy.