Chapter 3: Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties

Learning Objectives

After studying this guide, the student will be able to:

 Summarize the historical development of the periodic table (Döbereiner triads, Newlands’
law of octaves, Mendeleev’s table, modern periodic law)

 State the modern periodic law (properties are periodic functions of atomic number).

 Explain how electronic configuration (shells, subshells, quantum numbers) determines an

element’s position in the periodic table.

 Classify elements into s-, p-, d-, and f-blocks and give representative examples (with atomic
numbers and configurations).

 Define key terms: atomic radius, ionic radius, ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy,
electronegativity, valency, oxidation state, metallic and non-metallic character.

 Describe the periodic trends (across a period and down a group) for each property and
explain the trends using effective nuclear charge, shielding, and electron configuration.

 Identify and explain exceptions/anomalies (e.g. first IE of Beryllium vs Boron, Nitrogen vs

Oxygen).

 Sketch and interpret diagrams of the periodic table (blocks, trend arrows) and graphs
(property vs atomic number) based on textual descriptions.

 Solve numerical and conceptual problems involving periodic trends and compare values
(e.g. ranking ionization energies, explaining ionic radii of isoelectronic species) step-by-
step.

 Use mnemonic devices and summary tables to memorize and recall periodic trends and
block assignments.

Prerequisite Concepts (Recap)

 Atomic Structure: An atom has a nucleus (protons and neutrons) and electrons in shells.
The atomic number (Z) equals the number of protons (and electrons in a neutral atom).

 Quantum Numbers: Electrons in an atom are described by four quantum numbers

(principal n, azimuthal l, magnetic m, spin s). The principal quantum number n indicates
the shell or energy level (K, L, M… corresponding to n = 1, 2, 3…), the azimuthal quantum
number l (0 ≤ l < n) indicates subshell/shape (s, p, d, f), m denotes orbital orientation, and
s is the spin. These rules (Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion, Hund’s rule) determine how
electrons fill orbitals.

 Electronic Configuration: The electronic configuration is the distribution of electrons in

shells and subshells (e.g., Cl: [Ne] 3s²3p⁵). An element’s position in the periodic table
corresponds to the quantum numbers of its highest-energy electrons. For example, period
number = principal quantum number n of valence shell; group number (for main‐group
elements) ≈ number of valence electrons.
  Valence Electrons: Electrons in the outermost shell determine chemical behavior (valence
electrons). For main-group elements, group number equals number of valence electrons
(e.g., group 17 have seven valence electrons).

Historical Development of the Periodic Table

 Döbereiner’s Triads (1817–1829): Döbereiner observed that certain groups of three

elements (triads) had similar chemical properties and that the atomic weight of the middle
element was approximately the average of the other two. For example, the triad Cl (35.5),
Br (80), I (127) shows this relationship. This early attempt hinted at periodic patterns in
elemental properties.

 Newlands’ Law of Octaves (1865): Newlands arranged known elements by increasing

atomic weight and noted that every eighth element had similar properties, analogous to
musical octaves. For example, after Li, the eighth element (F) had properties like Li.
Newlands’ “Law of Octaves” worked only for lighter elements and broke down beyond
calcium, but it reinforced the idea of periodic repetition.

 Mendeleev’s Periodic Table (1869): Mendeleev arranged elements in rows and columns of
increasing atomic weight so that elements with similar properties fell in the same vertical
group. He left gaps for undiscovered elements and predicted their properties. For instance,
Mendeleev predicted the existence and properties of eka-aluminum (gallium) and eka-
silicon (germanium). Mendeleev’s Periodic Law stated that “the properties of the elements
are a periodic function of their atomic weights”. Merits included successful predictions of
new elements and a coherent organization; limitations were that elements like Te (128)
and I (127) appeared out of order by atomic weight, and it could not explain why the law
worked.

 Modern Periodic Table (Long Form): Following Moseley’s work in 1913, the modern
periodic law uses atomic number instead of atomic weight: elemental properties are a
periodic function of atomic number. The long-form table has 18 groups and 7 periods.
Elements up to atomic number 118 have been discovered and named. The table is divided
into blocks based on the highest-energy electron orbital being filled (s, p, d, f blocks).
Hydrogen and helium are exceptions: H (1s¹) behaves like group 1 or 17, and He (1s²) is
placed with group 18 because it has a filled shell.

Electronic Configuration and Periodic Table

 The period number equals the principal quantum number n of the valence shell (e.g.,
period 3 fills 3s and 3p orbitals). The number of elements in each period equals twice the
number of orbitals in that energy level (2 elements in period 1, 8 in periods 2 and 3, 18 in
period 4, 32 in periods 6 and 7 due to d and f filling).

 As we move across a period, electrons are added to the same shell, increasing the nuclear
charge and pulling electrons closer (hence atomic size shrinks). At the start of a new
period, a new shell (with higher n) begins, usually resulting in a larger atomic radius (e.g.
Na is much larger than F).

 Sketch A: A diagram of the long-form periodic table divided into blocks: the first two
columns (Groups 1–2) shaded as the s-block, the rightmost six columns (Groups 13–18) as
the p-block, the 10 middle columns (Groups 3–12) as the d-block, and the two rows at the
bottom as the f-block (lanthanoids and actinoids). Label an arrow pointing left-to-right
 (across a period) indicating “Increasing IE, EN, electron affinity”, and another arrow
pointing top-to-bottom (down a group) indicating “Increasing atomic radius, metallic
character”. (This schematic shows how trends run in the table.)

s-, p-, d-, and f-Block Elements

 s-Block Elements: These are Group 1 (alkali metals, configuration ns¹) and Group 2 (alkaline
earth metals, ns²). They have filled s-orbitals in their outermost shell. Examples: Li (Z=3,
1s²2s¹) and Be (Z=4, 1s²2s²) in period 2; Na (Z=11, [Ne]3s¹) and Ca (Z=20, [Ar]4s²) in period
3. (Helium has configuration 1s² but is placed with group 18 due to chemical similarity.) s-
Block elements are highly reactive metals (especially group 1), with low ionization energies
and electropositive character.

 p-Block Elements: These are Groups 13–18, with outermost configuration ns²np¹–⁶. This
block includes metals, nonmetals and metalloids (e.g. B in group 13, C in 14, N/O in 15/16,
halogens in 17, noble gases in 18). For example, B (Z=5, [He]2s²2p¹), Al (Z=13, [Ne]3s²3p¹) in
group 13; C (Z=6, [He]2s²2p²) in group 14; Cl (Z=17, [Ne]3s²3p⁵) and Ar (Z=18, [Ne]3s²3p⁶).
The p-block contains the noble gases (ns²np⁶) at each period’s end, which are chemically
inert due to filled shells Trends in this block reflect increasing np electron count across a
period.

 d-Block Elements (Transition Metals): These occupy Groups 3–12 and are characterized by
filling of inner d-orbitals. Their general configuration is (n–1) d¹–¹⁰ns⁰–². For instance, Sc
(Z=21, [Ar]3d¹4s²) through Zn (Z=30, [Ar]3d¹⁰4s²) fill the 3d subshell in period 4. Similarly,
Cu (Z=29) has [Ar]3d¹⁰4s¹ due to half-filled stability. Transition metals are all metals, often
forming coloured ions and multiple oxidation states. (Note: Zn, Cd, Hg are d-block but have
filled d¹⁰ shells and often differ in properties.)

 f-Block Elements (Inner Transition Metals): These are the Lanthanoids (Ce, Z=58 to Lu,
Z=71) and Actinoids (Th, Z=90 to Lr, Z=103). Their electrons fill (n–2)f orbitals, with
configuration (n–2)f¹–¹⁴(n–1)d⁰–¹ns². For example, Ce (Z=58, [Xe]4f¹5d¹6s²) through Lu
(Z=71, [Xe]4f¹⁴6s²) fill 4f, and similarly U (Z=92, [Rn]5f³6d¹7s²) onward fill 5f. These “inner
transition” elements are metals; actinoids are radioactive.

Periodicity of Properties – Underlying Factors

 Periodicity means that element properties (atomic size, reactivity, etc.) repeat periodically
as atomic number increases. This arises from repeating electron configurations in shells. In
modern terms, Periodic Law: “the properties of elements are a periodic function of their
atomic numbers” [Link].

 Effective Nuclear Charge (Z_eff): This is the net positive charge experienced by a valence
electron. Across a period, as protons are added, Z_eff increases because additional
electrons enter the same shell and do not completely shield each other. Thus, electrons are
held more tightly, making atomic radius smaller and ionization energy [Link].

 Shielding: Inner (core) electrons repel outer electrons, reducing the nucleus’s pull on them.
Down a group, new shells are added, and each extra inner shell increases shielding of
valence electrons. Therefore, down a group Z_eff felt by valence electrons grows much
slower than actual nuclear charge, and atomic size [Link].

Atomic Radius
Definition: Atomic radius is typically defined as half the distance between nuclei of two identical
atoms bonded together. For nonmetals, the covalent radius is half the bond length in a diatomic
molecule (e.g., Cl–Cl bond 198 pm gives Cl radius ≈99 pm)[Link]-south-
[Link]. For metals, the metallic radius is half the distance between adjacent metal
atoms in the crystal [Link]. NCERT simplification:
“atomic radius” refers to either covalent or metallic radius as [Link]-
[Link].

 Trend Across a Period: Atomic radius generally decreases from left to right (e.g., Li > Be > B
> … > F)[Link]. All electrons enter the same shell while nuclear charge increases,
pulling electrons [Link]. Example (period 2): Li 152 pm, Be 111 pm, … F 64
[Link].

 Trend Down a Group: Atomic radius increases down a group (e.g., Li < Na < K <
…)[Link]. Each step down adds a new electron shell (higher n) and increased
shielding, so outer electrons are farther from [Link]. Example (group 1): Li 152
pm, Na 186 pm, K 231 pm, Rb 244 pm, Cs 262 [Link].

 Causes: Increase in effective nuclear charge pulls electrons in across a period; increase in
shell number and shielding dominates down a [Link]. Noble gas radii
are usually not compared in covalent terms (use van der Waals radii instead)[Link].

Sketch B: A graph of atomic radius vs. atomic number for the 2nd period (Li to Ne) showing a
steady decrease. (Plot points: Li(152), Be(111), B(88), C(77), N(74), O(66), F(64) in [Link].)
Label the downward trend and annotate “Z_eff ↑ → radius ↓”.

Ionic Radius

Definition: Ionic radius is the radius of an ion in a crystal lattice. When an atom loses an electron to
form a cation, its radius decreases (fewer electrons, same nuclear charge); when it gains an
electron to form an anion, its radius increases (extra electron causes more repulsion)grab-
[Link]. Distances in ionic crystals are measured and half the
cation–anion distance gives ionic radii.

 Trend in a Period: Similar to atomic radii, cation size decreases and anion size decreases
across a period (as nuclear charge increases)[Link].
Also, within an isoelectronic series (same electron count), the ion with higher positive
charge is smallest (e.g., Mg²⁺ vs. Na⁺ vs. Ne: Mg²⁺ has highest Z, smallest radius)grab-
[Link].

 Trend in a Group: Ionic radius generally increases down a group (new shells, more
shielding). E.g., F⁻ (136 pm) is much larger than atomic F (64 pm); Na⁺ (95 pm) is much
smaller than Na atom (186 pm)grab- . In general, cations (M⁺, M²⁺, etc.) are smaller than
their parent atoms, while anions are larger.

 Example: Isoelectronic species O²⁻, F⁻, Na⁺, Mg²⁺ all have 10 electrons. Their radii decrease
in order O²⁻ > F⁻ > Na⁺ > Mg²⁺ because higher positive nuclear charge pulls electrons closer.

Solved Example:
Problem: (Intermediate) Rank the species Mg, Mg²⁺, Al, Al³⁺ by increasing size.
Solution: (1) Across a period atomic radii decrease and cations are smaller than neutral atomsgrab-
[Link]. (2) Mg (Z=12) is neutral atomic radius; Mg²⁺ has lost 2
electrons, so much smaller. Al (Z=13) neutral; Al³⁺ has lost 3 electrons, so smallest. Therefore,
largest to smallest: Mg > Al > Mg²⁺ > Al³⁺.
Answer: Mg (largest), then Al, then Mg²⁺, then Al³⁺ (smallest)[Link]-south-
[Link].

Ionization Enthalpy (Ionization Energy)

Definition: The ionization enthalpy (ionization energy) is the energy required to remove an
electron from an isolated gaseous atom in its ground state. The first ionization enthalpy (Δ_iH₁)
corresponds to:
X(g)→X+(g)+e−\mathrm{X(g)} \to \mathrm{X^+(g)} + e^-X(g)→X+(g)+e−
It measures how strongly an atom holds its valence [Link]-south-
[Link]. Successive ionization enthalpies (second, third, etc.) refer to removing
additional electrons from the cation. Each successive IE is larger, since removing an electron from a
positively charged ion is [Link]. For example, Na: IE₁
≈ 496 kJ/mol, IE₂ ≈ 4560 kJ/mol (huge jump after removing the valence electron).

 Trend Across a Period: First IE generally increases from left to [Link]-

[Link]. As atomic radius decreases and Z_eff increases, electrons are
more tightly bound. For example, period 2: Li (520) < Be (900) > B (800, slight drop) < C
(1086) … < F (1681)[Link]-
[Link]. (There are small anomalies due to subshell structure: B is slightly
lower than Be, and O is lower than N, explained below.)

 Trend Down a Group: First IE decreases down a [Link]-south-

[Link]. Extra shells mean the valence electron is farther and more shielded, so
less energy is needed to remove it (e.g., Li 520 kJ/mol vs Cs ~376 kJ/mol).

 Anomalies: Two well-known exceptions occur in periods 2 and 3: Boron (Z=5) has lower IE
than Beryllium (Z=4)[Link] because B’s electron is
in a 2p orbital (higher energy, less penetrating) versus Be’s 2s orbital. Oxygen (Z=8) has
lower IE than Nitrogen (Z=7)[Link] because O’s 2p
electrons are paired, causing extra repulsion; in N all three 2p electrons are unpaired
(Hund’s rule), so removing one from O is easier. These are explained by subshell
penetration and electron–electron [Link]-south-
[Link].

Sketch C: A schematic of an atom showing the nucleus (+) and two electron shells. Draw one
valence electron in the outer shell and illustrate inner shell electrons “shielding” it (use a dashed
circle for inner shell). Label the nucleus with charge +Z, inner electrons, and valence electron.
Include an arrow showing Z_eff from nucleus to valence electron, and note that inner electrons
reduce this pull (shielding)[Link]. This visualizes why IE increases across (higher
Z_eff) and decreases down (more shielding).

Successive Ionization Enthalpies

The second ionization enthalpy (Δ_iH₂) is the energy to remove a second electron from X⁺:
X+(g)→X2+(g)+e−.\mathrm{X^+(g)} \to \mathrm{X^{2+}(g)} + e^- .X+(g)→X2+(g)+e−.
Each successive IE is larger, because removing from a positively charged ion is harder (electrostatic
attraction stronger)[Link]. A large jump in successive IE
indicates removal past a noble-gas-like core. For example, Na: IE₁496 kJ/mol; IE₂4562 kJ/mol (huge
jump because Na⁺ has Ne core)[Link].
Problem: (Advanced) Explain why the second IE of Na is much larger than the second IE of Mg.
Solution: After removing one electron, Na⁺ has Ne (Z=10) configuration; removing another electron
breaks a closed shell, costing a lot of energy. Mg⁺ (Z=12→Mg⁺ with 11 electrons) still has one
valence electron above a Ne core, so its second IE is moderate. Thus, Na’s IE₂ is much larger than
Mg’s IE₂ because Na⁺ must remove an electron from a full shell whereas Mg⁺ still has a single
valence electron.

Electron Gain Enthalpy (Electron Affinity)

Definition: Electron gain enthalpy (Δ_egh, often called electron affinity with opposite sign) is the
enthalpy change when a neutral gaseous atom gains an electron to form an anion:
X(g)+e−→X−(g).\mathrm{X(g)} + e^- \to \mathrm{X^-(g)}.X(g)+e−→X−(g).
If energy is released, Δ_egh is negative; if energy must be supplied, it is positive. A large negative
value means the atom easily accepts an electron (e.g., halogens). This measures the tendency to
gain an [Link].

 Trend Across a Period: Electron gain enthalpy generally becomes more negative left to right
(e.g., C to F)[Link]. Higher Z_eff and smaller radius
make it more exothermic to add an electron. For example, F (–328 kJ/mol) is more negative
than Cl (–349), both are highly negative; O (–141) is less negative than S (–200) because of
inter-electron repulsion in the small 2p [Link]-south-
[Link].

 Trend Down a Group: Electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative down a groupgrab-
[Link]. Larger atoms (more shells) have added electrons
farther from nucleus, so less energy release. Noble gases have positive Δ_egh
(endothermic) because added electron must enter new shell (hard).

 Special Cases: Fluorine’s Δ_egh (–328 kJ/mol) is slightly less negative than chlorine’s (–349)
due to strong electron–electron repulsion in the small 2p shell of [Link]-
[Link]. Generally, halogens have the most negative values (Cl is most
negative in each period), while Group 15 elements (e.g. P) have comparatively less
negative or even positive [Link].

Problem: (Intermediate) Rank P, S, Cl, F by their electron gain enthalpies (most negative to least
negative) and explain.
Solution: Electron gain enthalpy becomes more negative across a period and less negative down a
[Link]. Among P, S, Cl, F (same period for P,S; Cl,F
also same period but to right), Cl (–349) is most negative, then F (–328), then S (–200), then P (–
74). The given values confirm this. Note O (–141) is less negative than S because adding to O’s 2p
shell has extra [Link].
Answer: Cl (most negative), then F, then S, then P (least negative)[Link]-south-
[Link].

Electronegativity

Definition: Electronegativity is a qualitative measure of how strongly an atom in a molecule

attracts shared electrons to itself. It is not directly measurable, but is defined via scales (Pauling
scale, etc.). On the Pauling scale, fluorine is assigned 4.0 (highest), and values decrease from there.
For example, Li = 1.0, Be = 1.5, …, F = [Link]; Na = 0.9,
Mg = 1.2, …, Cl = [Link].

 Trend Across a Period: Electronegativity increases from left to [Link]-

[Link]. This parallels the increase in ionization enthalpy and effective
nuclear charge (atoms more strongly attract electrons when smaller and with higher
nuclear pull). For example, Li (1.0) < C (2.5) < F (4.0)[Link]-south-
[Link].

 Trend Down a Group: Electronegativity decreases down a [Link]-south-

[Link] because of increasing atomic size and shielding. For example, F (4.0) > Cl
(3.0) > Br (2.8)[Link].

 Relation to Other Trends: High electronegativity correlates with high ionization enthalpy
and high negative electron gain enthalpy (nonmetallic character), and vice versa. For
instance, F has the highest EN (4.0) and low atomic radius, while Cs has low EN (~0.7) and
large radius.

Example: A bond’s polarity and ionic character depend on the difference in electronegativity
between [Link]. A larger Δχ yields more ionic character. For instance, HCl
(Δχ=0.96) is polar covalent (≈18% ionic character)[Link], whereas NaCl (Δχ≈2.23) is
highly [Link].

Valency and Oxidation States

Valency: The valency (valence) of an element is the number of bonds it can form (the combining
power). For representative (main-group) elements, valency usually equals the number of electrons
in the outermost shell, or equivalently 8 minus that number (to fill the octet)[Link]. For
example, oxygen (6 valence electrons) has valency 2 (8–6) in water (H₂O). Nitrogen (5 valence
electrons) often has valency 3 in NH₃ or 5 in HNO₃, consistent with 8–5=3 or taking all. Group 1
always has valency 1; Group 2 has 2; Group 13 has 3; Group 14 has 4; Group 15 has 3 or 5; Group
16 has 2 or 6; Group 17 has 1 (usually –1 as halides)[Link].

Oxidation State: This is the hypothetical charge an atom would have if all bonds to it were ionic,
determined by electronegativity. For example, in H₂O, H is +1 and O is –2. The term “oxidation
number/state” is now used interchangeably with valency. In NF₃, each F (most electronegative)
takes –1, so N is +3; in XeO₄, Xe is assigned +8 (formally)[Link].

Solved Example:
Problem: (Intermediate) Predict the formula of the compound formed by (a) Si (group 14) and Br
(group 17), (b) Al (group 13) and S (group 16).
Solution: From the periodic table, Si has valency 4 (group 14) and Br has valency 1 (group 17). To
combine, four Br atoms join one Si, giving SiBr₄[Link]. Al has valency 3 (group 13) and S has
valency 2 (group 16), so we need two Al (total valency 6) and three S (valency 6) to balance:
Al₂S₃[Link].
Answer: (a) SiBr₄; (b) Al₂S₃[Link].

Metallic and Non-metallic Character

 Metallic Character: A measure of how readily an element loses electrons (forms positive
ions). Metals are electropositive and tend to form cations; they are malleable, ductile, and
good conductors.
  Non-Metallic Character: A measure of how readily an element gains electrons (forms
anions). Non-metals are electronegative and form negative ions; they are brittle (if solid),
poor conductors, and often form acidic oxides.

Trends: Metallic character increases down a group and decreases across a [Link].
Conversely, non-metallic character increases from left to right and decreases down
[Link]. For example, carbon is much more non-metallic than silicon (C above Si), and
fluorine is a non-metal while cesium (below K) is highly metallic.

Example: In the order P, Si, Be, Mg, Na (in increasing atomic number), metallic character increases
as we go down (Na most metallic) and decreases left to right (P least metallic)[Link].

Ionic Character of Compounds

Definition: The ionic character of a bond or compound is the extent to which bonding electrons are
held more by one atom (making the bond polar/ionic). It depends on the difference in
electronegativity (Δχ) between the bonded atoms. A large Δχ means more ionic character.

 Estimation: One empirical formula for percent ionic character of a diatomic bond is:
% \text{ionic character} = \frac{\chi_{\text{higher}} - \chi_{\text{lower}}}{\chi_{\
text{higher}}} \times 100\%[Link].
For example, H–Cl: Δχ=0.96 (Cl 3.16–H 2.20), giving ≈18% ionic character. Values ≥50% are
mostly ionic; <5% are essentially [Link].

 Trend: Ionic character of a bond increases with increasing Δχ[Link]. E.g., NaCl
(Δχ≈2.23) is largely ionic, whereas HCl (Δχ≈0.96) is moderately polar
[Link].

 Relation to Periodicity: Across a period, electronegativity increases (so bonds become

more polar), while down a group it decreases. Thus, compounds of elements on the right
of the table with those on the left tend to be more ionic (e.g. NaF is very ionic).

Summary of Trends (Across vs. Down)

Property Across a Period (→) Down a Group (↓)

Decreases (Z_eff ↑, electrons Increases (new shells added,

Atomic Radius
closer)[Link] shielding ↑)[Link]

Cation radius ↓; anion radius ↓ (higher Generally increases (more shells,

Ionic Radius Z pulls ions smaller)[Link]- more shielding)[Link]-
[Link] [Link]

Decreases (atoms larger, shielding

Ionization Enthalpy Increases (atoms smaller, Z_eff ↑)grab-
↑)[Link]-south-
(IE) [Link]
[Link]

More negative (atoms smaller, Z_eff Less negative (atoms larger, shielding
Electron Gain
↑)[Link]-south- ↑)[Link]-south-
Enthalpy (EG)
[Link] [Link]

Electronegativity Increases (Z_eff ↑)[Link]- Decreases (Z_eff ↓)grab-

(EN) [Link] [Link]-south-
Property Across a Period (→) Down a Group (↓)

[Link]

Metallic Character Decreases (EN and IE ↑)[Link] Increases (EN and IE ↓)[Link]

Nonmetallic
Increases (EN and IE ↑)[Link] Decreases (EN and IE ↓)[Link]
Character

Valency (main- Remains roughly equal to group number Same as above; valence typically
group) (or 8–group number)[Link] unchanged down a group

(In all cases, noble gas elements are excluded from trends like atomic radius and IE since they have
filled shells.)

Practice Problems

Basic Level

1. Define Atomic Radius and explain the trend of atomic radius in the periodic table.
Solution: Atomic radius is half the distance between nuclei of two bonded identical
[Link]. Across a period, it decreases
(increased nuclear charge, same shell)[Link]; down a group, it increases (new shells,
more shielding)[Link].

2. Give the general electronic configuration of s-, p-, d-, and f-block elements and list one
example of each.
Solution: s-block: groups 1–2, config ns¹ or ns² (e.g., Na: [Ne]3s¹)[Link].
p-block: groups 13–18, config ns²np¹–⁶ (e.g., Cl: [Ne]3s²3p⁵)[Link].
d-block: groups 3–12, config (n–1)d¹–¹⁰ns⁰–² (e.g., Fe: [Ar]3d⁶4s²)[Link].
f-block: inner transition metals, config (n–2)f¹–¹⁴(n–1)d⁰–¹ns² (e.g., Ce:
[Xe]4f¹5d¹6s²)[Link].

3. What is the valency of oxygen and why? What oxidation state does oxygen show in H₂O?
Solution: Oxygen has 6 valence electrons (group 16) so valency = 8–6 = [Link]. In
H₂O, oxygen forms 2 bonds (each H donates 1 electron), so its oxidation state is –2 (or
valency 2).

4. Define the first ionization enthalpy of an atom.

Solution: It is the energy required to remove one electron from a gaseous atom in its
ground state: X(g) → X⁺(g) + e⁻[Link]. It indicates
how strongly the atom holds its outer electron.

Intermediate Level

5. Compare the atomic radii of Na and Mg. Explain the reason for the difference.
Solution: Sodium (Na) has a larger atomic radius (186 pm) than magnesium (Mg, 160
pm)[Link]. Both are in period 3, but Na has one fewer proton (Z=11 vs Z=12), so its
electrons are held less tightly. Across a period, increasing nuclear charge pulls electrons
closer, so Mg is smaller.

6. Arrange Be, B, O, and N in order of increasing first ionization enthalpy and explain any
anomalies.
 Solution: Expected trend: Be < B < C < N > O (in general IE rises across period). Actual: Be
(899 kJ/mol) > B (801) — anomaly because B’s electron is in 2p and easier to removegrab-
[Link]; N (1402) > O (1314) — anomaly because O has
paired 2p electrons causing [Link]. Hence
order: B (lowest IE) < Be < O < N (highest IE). The anomalies occur due to subshell
structure: B removes a p-electron vs Be an [Link]-south-
[Link], and O has paired electrons vs N [Link]-south-
[Link].

7. Why does fluorine have a high (negative) electron gain enthalpy but a smaller value than
chlorine?
Solution: Fluorine has very negative Δ_egh (–328 kJ/mol) because it strongly attracts an
extra electron (full 2p⁵ → 2p⁶)[Link]. However, its
value is slightly less negative than Cl’s (–349) because fluorine’s added electron suffers
more electron–electron repulsion in the small n=2 [Link]-south-
[Link]. In Cl (n=3), the extra electron goes into a larger volume with less
repulsion, so more energy is released.

8. State and explain the trend in metallic character across a period and down a group.
Solution: Metallic character decreases across a period (left→right) and increases down a
[Link]. Across a period, atoms become smaller and more electronegative,
making them less willing to lose electrons (more non-metallic)[Link]. Down a group,
atoms have more shells and lower ionization energy, so they lose electrons more easily
(more metallic).

9. Define electronegativity and give its trend in the periodic table.

Solution: Electronegativity is the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared
electrons. It increases from left to right across a period and decreases from top to bottom
of a [Link], reflecting higher nuclear pull for
smaller atoms and less pull for larger atoms. For instance, across period 3: Na(0.9) <
Mg(1.2) < Al(1.5) < Si(1.8) < P(2.1) < S(2.5) < Cl(3.0)[Link]-south-
[Link].

Advanced Level

10. Predict the relative sizes of the following ions: Na⁺, Mg²⁺, Al³⁺. Justify your answer.
Solution: All have 10 electrons (Na⁺, Mg²⁺, Al³⁺ are isoelectronic), but different nuclear
charges. Increasing nuclear charge pulls electrons closer: Z=11 (Na⁺), Z=12 (Mg²⁺), Z=13
(Al³⁺). Thus, Al³⁺ (highest Z) is smallest, then Mg²⁺, then Na⁺ (lowest Z) is largest.

11. Explain why the second ionization enthalpy of Na is much greater than that of Mg.
Solution: Na’s electronic configuration is [Ne]3s¹. After removing one electron (Na⁺), it has
[Ne], a closed shell. Removing a second electron would break this stable configuration,
requiring a large jump in energy. Mg (configuration [Ne]3s²) after losing one electron (Mg⁺)
still has [Ne]3s¹, so its second ionization only removes another 3s electron. Therefore, Na’s
IE₂ is much larger than Mg’s IE₂.

12. Describe how valency (or oxidation state) varies among the Group 15 (N, P, As, …)
elements.
Solution: Group 15 elements have 5 valence electrons. They commonly show oxidation
states +3 and +5 (e.g., N forms NH₃ (+3) and HNO₃ (+5)), and typically –3 in hydrides (NH₃
 as N³⁻ in [NH₄]⁺, etc.)[Link]. The difference between +3 and +5 states arises from
having either 3 or all 5 valence electrons involved in bonding. The NH₃ example shows
valence = 3 (like 8–5), while HNO₃ shows valence 5. As atomic size increases down the
group, the higher +5 state becomes more stable for heavier elements (e.g., Bi typically
shows +3 more than +5).

13. (Long Answer) Explain the development of the periodic table from Döbereiner to the
modern long-form table.
Solution: Döbereiner’s triads grouped elements by similar properties and roughly averaged
atomic [Link]. Newlands arranged elements
by increasing atomic weight and noticed every 8th element repeated propertiesgrab-
[Link]. Mendeleev’s table placed elements by atomic
weight so similar properties aligned vertically, leaving gaps for undiscovered elementsgrab-
[Link]; his periodic law (properties depend on atomic
weight) allowed prediction of missing elements. Moseley’s work showed atomic number
(nuclear charge) is the true ordering principle, leading to the modern long-form
[Link]. The modern periodic law states properties are a periodic function of
atomic [Link], resolving earlier inconsistencies (e.g. Te and I correctly ordered
by Z). The current table (up to element 118) is organized into s-, p-, d-, f-
[Link]. This demonstrates the shift from empirical grouping (triads,
octaves) to a systematic periodic law based on atomic structure.

Mnemonics and Tips

 Block Identification: Remember s, p, d, f correspond to shell labels. A mnemonic: “Smooth,

Pleated, Draped, Fancy” (visualize s-block with 1 or 2 columns, p-block with 6 columns, d-
block 10 columns, f-block 14).

 Periodic Trend Direction: Use the periodic table arrows: Atomic radius and metallic
character increase down and left (toward bottom-left corner), while ionization energy,
electron affinity, electronegativity increase up and right (toward top-right corner). Recall:
“Up-right – electrons tighten grip”.

 Valency (Main Groups): For groups 1–4, valency = group number. For groups 15–18, valency
= 8 – (group number for main group). For example, group 15 (5 valence e⁻) has valency 3
(8–5). “Number to Eight” rule helps.

 Octet Rule Mnemonic: Elements tend to achieve 8 electrons (noble gas config). For
combining capacity: “Eight is Great – what they have or need.”

 Anomaly Recall: “Boron-Beryllium and Oxygen-Nitrogen.” Whenever comparing 2nd-

period elements, recall the exceptions: Be > B in IE, N > O in IE.

Exam-Style Questions

1. State Modern Periodic Law. Answer: The periodic law states that “the properties of the
elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers”[Link].

2. What are Döbereiner’s Triads? Give an example. Answer: Döbereiner’s Triads are groups of
three elements with similar properties where the atomic weight of the middle element is
the average of the other [Link]. E.g., (Cl, Br, I)
form a triad (atomic weights ~35.5, 80, 127)[Link].
 3. List two merits of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table. Answer: It successfully grouped elements
with similar properties vertically and predicted undiscovered elements (like eka-Al and
eka-Si)[Link]. It organized diverse elements
systematically according to increasing atomic weight.

4. Explain why atomic radius decreases across a period. Answer: Across a period, electrons
are added to the same shell while nuclear charge increases, so the increased effective
nuclear attraction pulls electrons closer, reducing atomic [Link].

5. Why do alkali metals have low ionization energies? What trend does IE show in group 1?
Answer: Alkali metals (group 1) have one valence electron in an outer shell that is far from
the nucleus and poorly shielded, so it is easily removed, giving them low IEgrab-
[Link]. Down group 1, IE decreases because the valence
electron is in a higher shell with more shielding, making it even easier to remove.

6. Define electron gain enthalpy and state its periodic trend. Answer: Electron gain enthalpy
is the enthalpy change when an atom gains an electron (X + e⁻ → X⁻). It becomes generally
more negative (more exothermic) across a period (left→right) and less negative down a
[Link].

7. Compare metallic character of C, Si, Ge. Answer: Metallic character increases down the
group (because atoms are larger and less able to hold onto electrons)[Link]. Thus Ge
(group 14, period 4) is more metallic than Si (period 3), which is more metallic than C
(period 2).

8. What is the valency of element with outer configuration ns²np⁴? Answer: ns²np⁴ means 6
valence electrons. Valency is typically 8–6 = 2 (e.g. oxygen has configuration 2s²2p⁴ and
valency 2).

9. Explain the periodic trend in electronegativity in the periodic table. Answer:

Electronegativity increases left-to-right across a period (due to increasing nuclear charge
and decreasing radius) and decreases down a group (due to increasing atomic size and
shielding)[Link].

10. Sketch and label the periodic trends of atomic radius and ionization energy on an
annotated periodic table diagram (described in words).
Answer: Sketch: Draw a blank periodic table. Mark an arrow pointing from bottom-left
toward top-right labeled “Atomic Radius ↓” (indicating radius decreases) and the opposite
arrow “Atomic Radius ↑” from top-right to bottom-left. For ionization energy, arrow from
bottom-left to top-right labeled “IE ↑”. This shows radius is highest at bottom-left (Fr) and
lowest at top-right (He), whereas IE is lowest at bottom-left and highest at top-
[Link].

Revision Checklist

 Periodic Law: Elements’ properties repeat with atomic [Link].

 Historical Steps: Triads, Law of Octaves, Mendeleev (predictions), Moseley’s atomic

number revision.

 Periodic Table Layout: 18 groups, 7 periods; blocks: s (Groups1–2), p (13–18), d (3–12), f

(lanthanoids/actinoids)[Link].
 Electronic Configuration: Period = outer shell n; Group (main) ≈ # of valence electrons.
Aufbau/Pauli/Hund rules.

 Atomic Radius: Defined as half internuclear [Link]-south-

[Link]; decreases across period, increases down [Link].
Remember examples (Li:152→F:64 pm)[Link].

 Ionic Radius: Cations < neutral < anions (e.g. Na⁺(95) < Na(186) < F(64) < F⁻(136) pm)grab-
[Link]. Isoelectronic series sizes.

 Ionization Enthalpy: Energy to remove e⁻[Link];

increases across period, decreases down [Link]-south-
[Link]. Recall exceptions: B<Be and O<[Link]-south-
[Link].

 Electron Gain Enthalpy: Energy change adding e⁻[Link]-south-

[Link]; more negative across, less negative [Link]-south-
[Link]. Cl (–349) most exothermic, P least (–74) in period 3.

 Electronegativity: Attract shared e⁻; increases across period, decreases down groupgrab-
[Link]. F (4.0) highest, Cs (~0.7) lowest in ground-state.

 Valency/Oxidation States: For main-group, valency = group number or 8–group (see Table
in [51]). In compounds, atoms assume oxidation states based on electronegativity
[Link].

 Metallic Character: Increases down, decreases [Link]. Alkali metals (left-

bottom) are most metallic; halogens (top-right) most non-metallic.

 Ionic Character: Use EN difference to estimate polarity. Higher Δχ → more

[Link].

 Special Cases: Cr, Cu electronic configurations (e.g. Cr: [Ar]3d⁵4s¹ for stability), noble gas
atomic radii (van der Waals). Oxygen and nitrogen IE [Link]-south-
[Link].

 Blocks Examples: Remember specific examples for each block (e.g., Na/Be; C/P; Fe/Cu;
Ce/U) and their valences.