Chapter one and Two
1. Embedded system and Its Applications
An embedded system is a computer system with a dedicated function within a larger
mechanical or electrical system, often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as
part of a complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. Embedded systems
control many devices in common use today. Ninety-eight percent of all microprocessors are
manufactured as components of embedded systems
Examples of properties of typical embedded computers when compared with general
purpose counterparts are low power consumption, small size, rugged operating ranges, and low
per-unit cost. This comes at the price of limited processing resources, which make them
significantly more difficult to program and to interact with. However, by building intelligence
mechanisms on top of the hardware, taking advantage of possible existing sensors and the
existence of a network of embedded units, one can both optimally manage available resources at
the unit and network levels as well as provide augmented functions, well beyond those available.
For example, intelligent techniques can be designed to manage power consumption of
embedded systems.
Modern embedded systems are often based on microcontrollers (i.e. CPUs with
integrated memory or peripheral interfaces), but ordinary microprocessors (using external chips
for memory and peripheral interface circuits) are also common, especially in more-complex
systems. In either case, the processor(s) used may be types ranging from general purpose to
those specialized in certain class of computations, or even custom designed for the application
at hand. A common standard class of dedicated processors is the digital signal processor (DSP).
Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can optimize
it to reduce the size and cost of the product and increase the reliability and performance. Some
embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting from economies of scale.
Embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital watches and MP3 players,
to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, and largely complex
systems like hybrid vehicles, MRI, and avionics. Complexity varies from low, with a single
microcontroller chip, to very high with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside
a large chassis or enclosure.
Embedded systems are commonly found in consumer, cooking, industrial, automotive,
medical, commercial and military applications.
Telecommunications systems employ numerous embedded systems from telephone
switches for the network to cell phones at the end user. Computer networking uses dedicated
routers and network bridges to route data.
Consumer electronics include MP3 players, mobile phones, video game consoles, digital
cameras, GPS receivers, and printers. Household appliances, such as microwave ovens, washing
machines and dishwashers, include embedded systems to provide flexibility, efficiency and
features. Advanced HVAC systems use networked thermostats to more accurately and
efficiently control temperature that can change by time of day and season. Home automation
uses wired- and wireless-networking that can be used to control lights, climate, security,
audio/visual, surveillance, etc., all of which use embedded devices for sensing and controlling.
Transportation systems from flight to automobiles increasingly use embedded systems.
New airplanes contain advanced avionics such as inertial guidance systems and GPS receivers
that also have considerable safety requirements. Various electric motors brushless DC
motors, induction motors and DC motors use electric/electronic motor controllers.
Automobiles, electric vehicles, and hybrid vehicles increasingly use embedded systems to
maximize efficiency and reduce pollution. Other automotive safety systems include anti-lock
braking system (ABS), Electronic Stability Control (ESC/ESP), traction control (TCS) and
automatic four-wheel drive.
Medical equipment uses embedded systems for vital signs monitoring, electronic
stethoscopes for amplifying sounds, and various medical imaging (PET, SPECT, CT, and MRI)
for non-invasive internal inspections. Embedded systems within medical equipment are often
powered by industrial computers.[9]
Embedded systems are used in transportation, fire safety, safety and security, medical
applications and life critical systems, as these systems can be isolated from hacking and thus, be
more reliable, unless connected to wired or wireless networks via on-chip 3G cellular or other
methods for IoT monitoring and control purposes.[citation needed] For fire safety, the systems can be
designed to have greater ability to handle higher temperatures and continue to operate. In
dealing with security, the embedded systems can be self-sufficient and be able to deal with cut
electrical and communication systems.
A new class of miniature wireless devices called motes are networked wireless sensors.
Wireless sensor networking, WSN, makes use of miniaturization made possible by advanced IC
design to couple full wireless subsystems to sophisticated sensors, enabling people and
companies to measure a myriad of things in the physical world and act on this information
through IT monitoring and control systems. These motes are completely self-contained, and will
typically run off a battery source for years before the batteries need to be changed or charged.
2. Classifications of embedded systems.
Types of Embedded Systems
Embedded systems can be classified into different types based on performance, functional
requirements and performance of the microcontroller.
Types of Embedded systems
Embedded systems are classified into four categories based on their performance and functional
requirements:
Stand-alone embedded systems
Real time embedded systems
Networked embedded systems
Mobile embedded systems
Embedded Systems are classified into three types based on the performance of
the microcontroller such as
Small scale embedded systems
Medium scale embedded systems
Sophisticated embedded systems
Stand Alone Embedded Systems
Stand-alone embedded systems do not require a host system like a computer, it works by itself.
It takes the input from the input ports either analog or digital and processes, calculates and
converts the data and gives the resulting data through the connected device-Which either
controls, drives or displays the connected devices. Examples for the stand-alone embedded
systems are mp3 players, digital cameras, video game consoles, microwave ovens and
temperature measurement systems.
Real Time Embedded Systems
A real time embedded system is defined as, a system which gives a required o/p in a
particular time. These types of embedded systems follow the time deadlines for completion of a
task. Real time embedded systems are classified into two types such as soft and hard real
time systems.
Networked Embedded Systems
These types of embedded systems are related to a network to access the resources. The
connected network can be LAN, WAN or the internet. The connection can be any wired or
wireless. This type of embedded system is the fastest growing area in embedded system
applications. The embedded web server is a type of system wherein all embedded devices are
connected to a web server and accessed and controlled by a web browser. Example for the LAN
networked embedded system is a home security system wherein all sensors are connected and
run on the protocol TCP/IP
Mobile Embedded Systems
Mobile embedded systems are used in portable embedded devices like cell phones,
mobiles, digital cameras, mp3 players and personal digital assistants, etc. The basic limitation of
these devices is the other resources and limitation of memory.
Small Scale Embedded Systems
These types of embedded systems are designed with a single 8 or 16-bit microcontroller,
that may even be activated by a battery. For developing embedded software for small scale
embedded systems, the main programming tools are an editor, assembler, cross assembler and
integrated development environment (IDE).
Medium Scale Embedded Systems
These types of embedded systems design with a single or 16 or 32 bit microcontroller,
RISCs or DSPs. These types of embedded systems have both hardware and software
complexities. For developing embedded software for medium scale embedded systems, the
main programming tools are C, C++, JAVA, Visual C++, RTOS, debugger, source code
engineering tool, simulator and IDE.
Sophisticated Embedded Systems
These types of embedded systems have enormous hardware and software complexities,
that may need ASIPs, IPs, PLAs, scalable or configurable processors. They are used for cutting
edge applications that need hardware and software Co-design and components which have to
assemble in the final system.
3. Characteristics of embedded systems.
Quality Attributes of Embedded System
These are the attributes that together form the deciding factor about the quality of an
embedded system.
There are two types of quality attributes are:-
Operational Quality Attributes.
These are attributes related to operation or functioning of an embedded system. The way an
embedded system operates affects its overall quality.
Non-Operational Quality Attributes.
These are attributes not related to operation or functioning of an embedded system. The way
an embedded system operates affects its overall quality.
These are the attributes that are associated with the embedded system before it can be put in
operation.
Operational Attributes
Response
Throughput
Throughput deals with the efficiency of system.
Reliability
Maintainability
Maintainability deals with support and maintenance to the end user or a client in case of
technical issues and product failures or on the basis of a routine system checkup.
It can be classified into two types:-
Scheduled or Periodic Maintenance
This is the maintenance that is required regularly after a periodic time interval.
Example: Periodic Cleaning of Air Conditioners, Refilling of printer cartridges.
Maintenance to unexpected failure
This involves the maintenance due to a sudden breakdown in the functioning of the
system.
Example:
Air conditioner not powering on Printer not taking paper in spite of a full paper stack
Security
Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability are three corner stones of information
[Link] deals with protection data from unauthorized [Link] gives
protection from unauthorized [Link] gives protection from unauthorized
userCertain Embedded systems have to make sure they conform to the security measures.
Ex. An Electronic Safety Deposit Locker can be used only with a pin number like a password.
Safety
Safety deals with the possible damage that can happen to the operating person and
environment due to the breakdown of an embedded system or due to the emission of hazardous
materials from the embedded products.
A safety analysis is a must in product engineering to evaluate the anticipated damage
and determine the best course of action to bring down the consequence of damages to an
acceptable level.
Non Operational Attributes
Testability and Debug-ability
It deals with how easily one can test his/her design, application and by which mean he/she
can test it.
In hardware testing the peripherals and total hardware function in designed manner
Firmware testing is functioning in expected way
Debug-ability is means of debugging the product as such for figuring out the probable
sources that create unexpected behavior in the total system
Evolvability
embedded product can be modified to take advantage of new firmware or hardware technology.
Portability
An embedded product can be called portable if it is capable of performing its operation as
it is intended to do in various
environments irrespective of different processor and or controller and embedded
operating systems.
Time to prototype and market
Per unit and total cost
Cost is an important factor which needs to be carefully monitored. Proper market study and
cost benefit analysis should be carried out before taking decision on the per unit cost of the
embedded product.
When the product is introduced in the market, for the initial period the sales and revenue
will be low.
During the maturing phase, the growth will be steady and revenue reaches highest point and at
retirement time there will be a drop in sales volume.
4. Quality attributes to be considered in an embedded system design
Characteristics Of Embedded System
Following are some of the characteristics of an embedded system that make it
different from a general purpose computer:
Application and Domain specific
An embedded system is designed for a specific purpose only. It will not do any other
task.
Ex. A washing machine can only wash, it cannot cook
Certain embedded systems are specific to a domain: ex. A hearing aid is an application that
belongs to the domain of signal processing.
Reactive and Real time
Certain Embedded systems are designed to react to the events that occur in the nearby
environment. These events also occur real-time.
Ex. An air conditioner adjusts its mechanical parts as soon as it gets a signal from its sensors to
increase or decrease the temperature when the user operates it using a remote control. An
embedded system uses Sensors to take inputs and has actuators to bring out the required
functionality.
Operation in harsh environment
Certain embedded systems are designed to operate in harsh environments like very high
temperature of the deserts or very low temperature of the mountains or extreme rains. These
embedded systems have to be capable of sustaining the environmental conditions it is designed
to operate in.
Distributed
Certain embedded systems are part of a larger system and thus form components of a
distributed system. These components are independent of each other but have to work together
for the larger system to function properly.
Ex. A car has many embedded systems controlled to its dash board. Each one is an independent
embedded system yet the entire car can be said to function properly only if all the systems work
together.
Small size and weight
An embedded system that is compact in size and has light weight will be desirable or
more popular than one that is bulky and heavy.
Ex. Currently available cell phones. The cell phones that have the maximum features are
popular but also their size and weight is an important characteristic.
For convenience users prefer mobile phones than phablets. (phone + tablet pc)
Power concerns
UNIT-II
1. Components used as the core of embedded systems
Core of Embedded Systems
Embedded systems are domain and application specific and are built around a central
core. The core of the embedded system falls into any of the following categories:
General purpose and Domain Specific Processors
· Microprocessors
· Microcontrollers
· Digital Signal Processors
Application Specific Integrated Circuits. (ASIC)
Commercial off-the-shelf components (COTs)
MICROPROCESSORS
o Intel Intel 4004 November 1971(4-bit). o Intel Intel 4040. o Intel Intel 8008 April
1972.
o Intel Intel 8080 April 1974(8-bit). o Motorola Motorola 6800.
o Intel Intel 8085 1976.
MICROCONTROLLERS.
A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that contains a CPU, scratch pad RAM, special
and general purpose register arrays, on chip ROM/FLASH memory for program storage, timer
and interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports.
Some embedded system application require only 8 bit
controllers whereas some requiring superior performance and computational needs demand
16/32 bit controllers. The instruction set of a microcontroller can be RISC or CISC.
Microcontrollers are designed for either general purpose application requirement or domain
specific application requirement.
Digital Signal Processors
DSP are powerful special purpose 8/16/32 bit microprocessor designed to meet the
communication applications.
DSP are 2 to 3 times faster than general purpose microprocessors in signal
processing applications. This is because of the architectural difference between DSP and
general purpose microprocessors.
Application Specific Integrated Circuits. (ASIC)
ASICs is a microchip design to perform a specific and unique applications. Because of
using single chip for integrates several functions there by reduces the system development cost.
Most of the ASICs are proprietary (which having some trade name) products, it is referred as
Application Specific Standard Products(ASSP).
As a single chip ASIC consumes a very small area in the total system. Thereby helps in
the design of smaller system with high capabilities or functionalities. The developers of such
chips may not be interested in revealing the internal detail of it
Programma
A PLD is an electronic component. It used to build digital circuits which are reconfigurable.
A logic gate has a fixed function but a PLD does not have a defined function at the time of
manufacture. PLDs offer customers a wide range of logic capacity, features, speed, voltage
characteristics. PLDs can be reconfigured to perform any number of functions at any time. A
variety of tools are available for the designers of PLDs which are inexpensive and help to
develop, simulate and test the designs.
PLDs having following two major types.
1) CPLD(Complex Programmable Logic Device):
CPLDs offer much smaller amount of logic up to 1000 gates.
2) FPGAs(Field Programmable Gate Arrays):
It offers highest amount of performance as well as highest logic density, the most features.
Advantages of PLDs: - PLDs offer customer much more flexibility during the design
cycle. PLDs do not require long lead times for prototypes or production parts because PLDs are
already on a distribu . PLDs can be reprogrammed even after a
piece of equipment is shipped to a customer.
Commercial off-the-shelf components(COTs)
A Commercial off the Shelf product is one which is used 'as-is'. The COTS components
itself may be develop around a general purpose or domain specific processor or an ASICs or a
PLDs. The major advantage of using COTS is that they are readily available in the market, are
chip and a developer can cut down his/her development time to a great extent The major
drawback of using COTS components in embedded design is that the anufacturer of the COTS
component may withdraw the product or discontinue the production of the COTS at any time if
rapid change in technology occurs.
2. Different types of memories used in embedded systems design
Types of Memory Modules
Different types of memory modules for any system depend on the nature of application
of that system. The memory performance and capability requirements are small for low cost
systems. Selection of a memory module is the most critical requirement in a designing a
microcontroller based project.
The following general types of memory module can be used in an embedded system.
Volatile Memory
Non-Volatile Memory
Volatile Memory Module RAM
The RAM memory chip, referred to as a main memory, is a storage location that allows
information to be stored and accessed quickly from random location with memory module. The
memory cell which can be accessed for information transfer to or from any desired random
location is called a Random Access Memory.
A RAM memory is designed with a collection of storage cells. Each cell contains either BJT or
MOSFET based on type of memory module. For example, 4*4 RAM memory can store 4 bit of
information.
Every instruction of a row and column in this matrix is a memory cell. Each block labeled BC,
represents the binary cells with its 3 inputs and 1 output. Each block consists of 12 binary cells.
Internal Data Storage Circuit for RAM Memory
To each memory block, each word output from the decoder is the select input. The
decoder is enabled with the memory enable input. When the memory enable pin is at logic low
level, all outputs of the decoder are at logic low level and memory
When the enable pin is at logic high level, the parallel output corresponding to the serial input is
given as select input to each memory block.
Internal Data
storage circuit for RAM memory chip
Once the word has been selected, the read and write pin for each block, determines the
operation. If the read/write pin is at logic low level, the input is written onto the memory block.
If the read/write pin is at logic high level, the output is read from each block.
Non- Volatile Memory-ROM Memory
Non-volatile memories are permanent storage types of memory chips which can get back stored
information even when the power is switched off. An example of non-volatile memory device is
Read Only Memory (ROM).
The ROM stands for Read Only Memory. ROM can only be used to read from, but cannot be
written upon. These memory devices are non-volatile.
Non volatile memory-ROM Memory
The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. The ROM can
store instructions which are required to start computer when power is given to the computer.
This operation is referred to as bootstrap.
A ROM memory cell is designed with a single transistor. The ROM memory is not only used in
the computers but also in other electronic devices like controllers, micro ovens, washing
machines etc.
A ROM family is designed with collection of storage cells. Each memory cell contains either
bipolar or MOSFET transistor based on types of memory.
3. Sensors and Actuators
Sensors & Actuators
Sensor
A Sensor is used for taking Input. It is a transducer that converts energy from one form
to another for any measurement or control purpose
Ex. A Temperature sensor
Actuator
Actuator is used for output. It is a transducer that may be either mechanical or electrical
which converts signals to corresponding physical actions.
Ex. LED (Light Emitting Diode)
LED is a p-n junction diode and contains a CATHODE and ANODE
For functioning the anode is connected to +ve end of power supply and cathode is
connected to ve end of power supply.
The maximum current flowing through the LED is limited by connecting a RESISTOR
in series between the power supply and LED as shown in the figure below
There are two ways to interface an LED to a microprocessor/microcontroller:
The Anode of LED is connected to the port pin and cathode to Ground : In this
approach the port pin sources the current to the LED when it is at logic high(ie. 1).
The Cathode of LED is connected to the port pin and Anode to Vcc : In this
approach the port pin sources the current to the LED when it is at logic high (ie. 1). Here the
port pin sinks the current and the LED is turned ON when the port pin is at Logic low (ie. 0)
4. Communication interface.
Communication Interfaces:
For any embedded system, the communication interfaces can broadly classified into:
On board Communication Interfaces
These are used for internal communication of the embedded system i.e: communication
between different components present on the system. Common examples of onboard interfaces
are:
Example: Inter Integrated Circuit (I2C)
It is synchronous
Bi-directional, half duplex , two wire serial interface bus
Developed by Phillips semiconductors in 1980 It
comprises of two buses :
Serial clock SCL
Serial Data SDA
SCL generates synchronization clock pulses SDA transmits data serially across devices I2C is a
shared bus system to which many devices can be connected. Devices connected by I2C can act
as either master or slave. The master device is responsible for controlling communication by
initiating/ terminating data transfer. Devices acting as slave wait for commands from the master
and respond to those commands.
External or Peripheral Communication Interfaces
These are used for external communication of the embedded system i.e: communication
of different components present on the system with external or peripheral components/devices.
Common examples of external interfaces are:
Example: RS-232 C & RS-485
It is wired, asynchronous, serial, full duplex communication RS 232 interface was developed by
EIA (Electronic Industries Associates) In early 1960s RS 232 is the extension to UART for
external communications RS-232 logic levels use:
+3 to +25 volts to signify a "Space" (Logic 0) and -
3 to -25 volts to signify a "Mark" (logic 1).
RS 232 supports two different types of connectors :
DB 9 and DB 25 as shown in figure below
RS 232 interface is a point to point communication interface and the devices involved are called
as Data Terminating Equipment (DTE) And Data
Communications Terminating Equipment (DCE)
Embedded devices contain UART for serial transmission and generate signal levels as
per TTL/CMOS logic. A level translator IC (like Max 232) is used for converting the signal
lines from UART to RS 232 signal lines for communication.
The vice versa is performed on the receiving side. Converter chips contain converters for
both transmitters and receivers, RS 232 is used only for point to point connections. It is
susceptible to noise and hence is limited to short distances only RS 422 is another serial
interface from EIA. It supports multipoint connections with 1 transmitter and 10 receivers. It
supports data rates up to 100Kbps and distance up to 400 ft RS 485 is enhanced version of RS
422 and supports up to 32 transmitters and 32 receivers.