MODULE 1
NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
Introduction
Unit I consists of: Module 1-A which tackles the definition, characteristics, functions and
importance of research in academic disciplines and in various fields of work; Module 1-B (Reading 1)
which introduces or reintroduces you to the various means of knowing, culminating in the discussion of
the scientific method following the research process, and Module C which presents the different types
of research: basic vs applied research, quantitative vs qualitative research, mixed-methods research and
other research types. The discussion is brief because the concepts and processes in Module C are
discussed lengthily in the succeeding units. A mastery test will be given at the end of the unit.
Learning Outcomes
UNIT 1 will enable you to:
1. Discuss the definition, characteristics, function and importance of research in the
academe and at work.
2. Explain the different ways of obtaining information about topics of interest in your
academic discipline/field of study.
3. Distinguish the different types of research: (READINGS)
a. Basic vs applied research
b. Quantitative vs qualitative research
c. Mixed-methods research
d. Other types of research.
Practical application and assessment for each module come in the form of exercises and/or
activities, and assigned readings in some instances. All of these practical applications are as much for
your self-assessment of your progress as for my assessment of your accomplishments. They are major
components of each module which you must read thoroughly.
Assigned readings are not limited to the topics given. You can choose any relevant topic to react
upon. If you find the topic worth sharing to me and to your classmates, please do so. It will be
graciously appreciated.
You are advised to inform your teacher (me) if you are unable to attend F2F interaction so
adjustments can be made in the instructional delivery. Further, please be advised to take note of the
date of submission of exercises/activities. I AM PRESENTING ALTERNATIVE MODES OF INSTRUCTIONAL
DELIVERY. CHOOSE ONE (OR A COMBINATION) THAT FITS YOUR INTEREST AND NEEDS.
The references are included within the text so you can do your follow up readings. But you are
not limited to the listed references. There are many available references about research online and in
print.
MODULE 1-A
RESEARCH: DEFINITION, CHARACTERISTICS, FUNCTION, and IMPORTANCE IN ACADEMIC
DISCIPLINES AND IN THE WORKPLACE
Introduction
There are three terms that need to be defined so they can be used correctly: field, discipline,
and science. Adopting the definition of McMillan and Schumacher, (1993) “field,” is an area of research,
knowledge and practice that is more than a single discipline, as in business administration, public
management, education, medicine, nursing, and other related studies. “Discipline” refers to a method
of organizing academic knowledge. Disciplines are usually classified as the physical, behavioral, and
social sciences. Physical science is the study of the natural universe; behavioral science is the study of an
organism; and social science is the study of human social systems. Although scholars and scientists
debate whether a particular discipline is a science, they generally agree it is the research topic that
distinguishes physical, behavioral, and social sciences. Module 1 - A presents various definitions,
characteristics, function, and the importance of research in academic disciplines and at work.
Learning Objectives: This module you will help you to:
1. Describe research as a product and as a process.
2. Explain the characteristics of research as a scientific inquiry.
3. Explain the function of research as used in academic discipline and at work.
4. Identify possible researchable topics based on personal experiences and observations.
5. Organize reference data accurately and completely using APA referencing style.
Lesson Proper
A. Research: Definition
Here are some typical definitions of research:
• Research is the systematic study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach
conclusions.
• It is a process of searching repeatedly, re-searching for new insights and a more comprehensive,
cohesive, “elegant” theory (Brause, 2000:37; Brause & Mayher, 1991, in Baac, 2008).
• Research is a systematic, formal, rigorous, and precise process employed to gain solutions to
problems and/or to discover and interpret new facts and relationships (Waltz & Bausell, 1981, p.1).
• Research is the process of looking for a specific answer to a specific question in an organized
objective, reliable way (Payton, 1979, p. 4).
• Research is systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of natural phenomena guided
by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations among such phenomena (Kerlinger, 1986,
p. 10)
From the given definitions, research can be viewed as a product and as a process.
What are the products of research? _________________________________________
What are the characteristics of research as a process? __________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Having read the various definitions given, how would you differentiate scientific research from
library research? ________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
PLEASE HAVE ANSWERS TO THESE QUESTIONS. SOME MIGHT APPEAR IN YOUR TERM EXAM.
B. The Characteristics of Research*
The following characteristics are common to many types of research conducted in your fields of study –
business administration, public administration/management, education, nursing, social work, and
others: objective, precise, verifiable, explanatory, empirical logical and probabilistic. Taken together,
these seven characteristics describe the nature of research (McMillan & Schumacher, 1993).
1. Objectivity. Objectivity is both a procedure and a characteristic. To the lay person, objectivity
mean unbiased, open-minded, not subjective. As a procedure, objectivity, refers to data
collection and analysis procedures from which only one meaning or interpretation can be
made…. Objectivity in qualitative (nonstatistical) research means explicitness in the way the
data were collected, categorized, reconstructed, and interpreted. Objectivity thus refers to the
quality of the data produced by the procedures for collecting and analyzing and not the
researcher’s personal characteristics. The importance of objectivity is broader and pervades the
entire research process. Exact descriptions of research procedures allow other researchers to
replicate a study….
2. Precision. Research uses a technical language. Technical research language is employed not to
confuse the reader but to convey exact meanings. The concepts of leadership, creativity,
productivity, effectiveness, etc. have precise meanings in research that may differ from
conventional meanings. Expressions such a validity and reliability in measurement, research
design, random sample, and statistical significance convey technical procedures. The most
precise expression in quantitative research is a mathematical equation or statistical finding.
Precision in qualitative research is achieved through words rather than numbers. Precision is
expressed by extensive and detailed expression in order to convey subtle connotations and
meanings. Precise language describes the study accurately so that the study may be replicated
or extended and the results may be used correctly. Precision in research also refers to precise
measurement. In studies that use instruments such as tests, rating scales, observation
schedules, is crucial. Precise measurement in these studies refers to instrument validity and
reliability.
3. Verification. To develop knowledge, a single study attempts to be designed and presented in
such a manner as to allow verification – the results can be confirmed or revised in subsequent
research. Results can be verified in different ways, depending on the purpose of the original
study. If the research tests a theory, then further testing with other groups in other settings
could confirm or revise the theory. If the research is a qualitative exploratory study to propose
theory, then the proposed theory could be verified with designs using quantitative approaches.
Some qualitative studies, however, provide descriptive understandings about relatively
unique situations, and these insights or understanding are extended, but not replicated, in
subsequent research of other situations or historical eras for revision or confirmation.
Qualitative research is not verified in the same manner as quantitative research. The
characteristics of verification or extension also refers to sharing the results of the study.
Research is a social enterprise, and its information is presented to the professional
community for public scrutiny. (This is the reason why your thesis/dissertation has to be
presented in colloquia). Through this process, researchers develop a body of knowledge and
identify new research questions.
4. Parsimonious explanation. Research attempts to explain relationships among phenomena and
to reduce the explanation to simple statements. The theory “frustration leads to aggression” is
an explanation that predicts, and it can be tested for verification. The generalization “the
cumulative effect of complex events, rather than a single leader, causes wars” is an explanation
that can be investigated further. The ultimate aim of research is thus to reduce complex
realities to simple explanations.
5. Empiricism. Research is characterized by a strong empirical attitude and approach. The word
empirical has lay and technical meanings. The lay meaning of empirical is that which is guided
by practical experience, not by research. This pragmatic perspective states that if it works, it is
right; regardless of the reasons, it must be right because it works. To the researcher, empirical
means guided by evidence obtained by systematic research methods rather than by opinions or
authorities. Empiricism and an empirical attitude require a temporary suspension of personal
experience and beliefs. Critical elements in research are evidence and logical interpretations
based on the evidence. To a researcher, evidence is data, meaning it is results obtained from
research from which interpretations or conclusions are drawn. In a general sense, the terms
data, sources and evidences are used synonymously, meaning information obtained by research
methods. Test scores and computer printouts, observation notes and interview records,
historical documents and judicial rulings are all called data. Researchers may say, “the data
indicate that children with low reading ability tend to achieve less in school.” By this they mean
that the relationship between some type of reading ability scores and school achievement
indicators warrant making this interpretation.
6. Logical reasoning. All research requires logical reasoning. Reasoning is a thinking process, using
prescribed rules or logic, in which one proceeds from a general statement to the specific
conclusion (deduction) or, the reverse, from specific statements to a generalization (induction).
In deductive reasoning, if the premises are correct then the conclusion is automatically correct.
The conclusion of a deductive logical syllogism can never extend beyond the content of the
premises. Totally “new” conclusions would not occur because the premises are not challenged
empirically. Deductive logic, however, can identify new relationships within existing knowledge.
In inductive reasoning, a researcher reaches a conclusion by observing particular cases and
generalizing from the cases in the class to draw an inductive logical conclusion. In practice, this
is usually not possible and one generally must use imperfect induction based on incomplete
observation. The conclusions are thus limited to the particular class or cases observed (group).
Neither system of logical reasoning is totally satisfactory, but when both are integrated into a
research process. They make a single study more effective. Researchers use both deductive and
inductive reasoning in a constant cycle.
Deductive and inductive reasoning also characterize research approaches. Deductions from
theory identify hypotheses, which when tested with specific data, provide results to confirm,
reject, or modify the theory. This approach, from the top down, is called the hypothetic-
deductive approach and is typical of quantitative experimental studies that investigate
hypotheses deduced from theories….
The empirico-inductive approach builds “abstractions as the particulars that have been
gathered are grouped together.” Theory developed this way emerges from the bottom up and is
called “grounded theory.” The researcher reconstructs a picture that takes shape as the parts
are collected and examined. The process of data analysis is like a funnel: things are open at the
beginning and become more directed and specific at the end as limited generalizations are
slowly induced. This empirico-inductive approach is typical of qualitative studies (ethnographic
and historical), especially discovery-oriented or exploratory studies, to suggest a “working
hypothesis” for future research or an understanding of the particular cases examined.
7. One misconception of research is that the results are absolute and that conclusions are true
beyond a shadow of doubt. This is not the situation…. Research can never tell us that
something is so certain that no doubt exists. It can, however, say something like this: The odds
are 7 out of 100 thar it is true.
Probabilistic thinking is central to research. All scientific and applied disciplines are
probabilistic. Researchers thus often write that their results “tend to indicate or “are
suggestive.”
___________
*Excerpted with slight modification from James H. McMillan & Sally Schumacher. (1993). New
York: HarperCollins College Publishers.
C. Function of Research
You are a professional in your own right making decisions in life that have immediate and long-range
effects on you and on others. How will research help you in making prudent decisions?
Research is frequently viewed as a systematic process employed to answer questions. The research
process is done in search for solutions to problems. It is, however, much more than a method of
problem solving. In fact, the function of research is to generate or test theory. Research designed
to generate theory seeks to identify a phenomenon, discover its dimensions or characteristics, or
specify the relationships between the dimensions. Research designed to test theory seeks to develop
evidence about hypotheses derived from the theory. A rational being does theory generation and
theory testing everyday in his/her life, consciously or unconsciously to solve simple or complex
problems.
Research is a source of information that has been used increasingly in order to make decisions.
Because research systematically describes or measures reality, it is deemed a better source of
knowledge than one’s own experience, belief, or intuition alone.
Why has research become a valuable source of information and knowledge in your field of endeavor
– business administration, public management, educational management? Research in various fields
makes contributions to knowledge in various disciplines and fields of studies to improve practices.
The impact of research on individuals and institutions seeking to improve practices may be seen as a
process. Fig. 1 shows five phases of the process to generate knowledge to improve practices. These
phases are: (1) identification of research problems, (2) empirical studies, (3) replications, (4) research
synthesis and reviews, and (5) practitioner adoption and evaluation.
Phase 1 2 3 4 5
Professional
practice
Previous Research Empirical Replications Research Adoption
research problems studies synthesis and evaluation
Methodological
advancement
Figure 1. Development of Knowledge to Improve Practice
(Adapted from McMIllan & Schumacker, 1993 with slight modification)
Research problems (Phase 1) begins with an identification of desired outcomes. Practical fields, like
business administration, are concerned with desired outcomes such enhanced productivity. Research
questions and problems come from the following sources: common observation, practical wisdom,
policy controversies, prior research, and new methodological techniques or approaches. Researchers
conduct empirical studies (Phase 2) and then they attempt research replication (Phase 3) with different
subjects and in a variety of settings and circumstances. Research synthesis and reviews (systematically
evaluate and statistically or narratively summarize comparable studies. Such an analysis helps to
organize and make sense of the overall findings of prior research
Practical Application and Assessment
WRITE YOUR ANSWER TO THE QUESTIONS ON THE BLANK SPACES BUT YOU DON’T NEED TO SUBMIT
THEM.
Through your personal experiences and observations of people, events, programs/projects, and other
aspects of your workplace environment, what seem to disrupt the smooth flow of work, or cause
problem? Write down as many as you have observed.
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
If you can pinpoint the cause of the problem, then no research is needed. Get rid of the cause. On the
other hand, if there are competing explanations of the possible causes of the problem, then it is worth
researching.
Reflect again on the problems you have mentioned above. What problem is worth researching? ___
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
What do the literature say about the problem? If there have been many ideas written about your
observation, perhaps you will get your answer to the problem from the literature, then you don’t need
to do research to find your answer. You just probably need to read what authorities or previous
researchers say about the problem and decide whether the ideas are relevant and sufficient enough to
answer your problem.
On the other hand, you may have come across people, events, programs/projects or any interesting
aspects in your workplace or community to draw lessons from hence worth sharing to others. Perhaps,
those personal experiences or observations can be a source of research that is worth doing and that will
make a contribution if well reported. Can you recall some such personal experiences or observations?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Do Exercise 1-A
EXERCISE 1.A
Selecting and Summarizing a Relevant Literature
1. Read one relevant article from a printed or electronic source about the personal
experience or observation you identified above.
2. Give a one paragraph summary of the article relating it to the topic you identified.
3. N.B. If the article is obtained from a document on the Internet, provide the Internet
address for the document at the end of the retrieval statement.
If the information is retrieved from an aggregated database, providing the name of the
database is sufficient; no address is needed.
4. If your article comes from printed periodical, book, brochure, technical and research
report, proceedings of meetings and symposia, dissertation/thesis, etc. use the APA
reference style. As a graduate student, you are expected to have acquired skill in
referencing. All throughout this course, APA style of referencing will be used. Please use
the Internet to access information on APA style for the preparation of references.
5. This exercise may or may not be submitted. If you intend to submit it, use the Google
drive link.
6. THIS IS IMPORTANT AND YOU NEED TO SUBMIT IT. PLEASE WRITE A BRIEF
INTRODUCTION OF YOURSELF DETAILING YOUR:
a. Personal info (only what you want me to know)
b. Baccalaureate degree completed (where earned)
c. Status/nature of employment (If employed, in what office; If employer, nature of
business
d. Data that you handle or have access to
e. Special topic of interest (whether enrolled in master’s or doctoral program
These information are important to enable me to help you complete the final
requirement of the course – a research proposal.
7. PLEASE DO THE SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE.
INTRUCTIONAL DELIVERY PREFERENCE (Please check /) IMPORTANT: SEND TO this Google Drive
link: [Link]
[ ] In person (F2F) instruction as scheduled (5:30 to 8:30 (UST-L) Wednesdays
[ ] Modular Lessons (sent through GC)
[ ] Modular Lessons with in person meeting as needed and requested (individualized – UST-L Grad
School Office; DWCL – Research Office
[ ] Synchronous (Google Classroom) instruction as scheduled (5:30 to 8:30 Wednesdays)
[ ] Others (Pls suggest: ____________________________________________________________
If you need to see me in person for assistance, please send me a personal message.
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