OBJECTIVES

To study the variation of electrical resistance with temperature for different materials.
To compare the resistance behaviour of a conductor, semiconductor, insulator, and electrolyte.
To understand the role of charge carriers in electrical conduction.
To relate experimental observations with theoretical concepts such as energy band theory.
To apply the knowledge of resistance variation in real-life devices like thermistors, heaters, and
batteries.

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INTRODUCTION
Electricity has become an essential part of modern life and is widely used in domestic,
industrial, and technological applications. The flow of electric current through different materials
forms the basis of all electrical and electronic devices. However, not all materials allow electric
current to pass through them with the same ease. Some materials conduct electricity easily, while
others offer strong opposition to the flow of current. This opposition offered by a material to the
flow of electric current is known as electrical resistance.
Electrical resistance is an important physical property of matter and depends on various
factors such as the length and cross-sectional area of the material, its nature, and temperature.
Among these factors, temperature plays a significant role in determining the resistance of a
material. When the temperature of a material changes, the motion of atoms and charge carriers
inside the material also changes, resulting in a variation in resistance.
In this investigatory project, an attempt has been made to study and compare the variation
of electrical resistance with temperature in a conductor, semiconductor, insulator, and electrolyte.
The project aims to experimentally observe the differences in their resistance–temperature
characteristics and to relate these observations with theoretical concepts, thereby strengthening
the understanding of fundamental principles of electricity.

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ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
Electrical resistance is the inherent property of a material that opposes or resists the flow
of electric current through it. Resistance determines how much current will flow in a material for
a given potential difference applied across it. It is the measure of difficulty faced by charge
carriers (electrons in metals, holes and electrons in semiconductors, ions in electrolytes) as they
move through a material.
1. Mathematical Expression
According to Ohm’s Law:
R =V/I
Where:
 R = Resistance (Ω)
 V = Voltage applied across the material (V)
 I = Current through the material (A)
A material obeying Ohm’s law is called an ohmic conductor.
2. Dependence on Material Properties
The resistance of a conductor is not only dependent on voltage and current but also on its physical
properties:
Where:
R= ρ L/A
ρ =Resistivity of the material (Ω·m)
L= Length of the conductor (m)
A= Cross-sectional area (m²)
Key Observations:
Longer conductor → higher resistance
Larger cross-section → lower resistance
Material with high resistivity → higher resistance
3. Unit of Resistance
The SI unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω)
1 Ω = Resistance when 1 Volt produces 1 Ampere current
4. Importance in Physics and Electronics
Understanding resistance is essential for designing circuits, electrical devices, and temperature
sensors
Explains the working of heaters, thermistors, resistors, and batteries
FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE
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 1. Length of the Conductor (L)
Resistance is directly proportional to the length of the conductor:
Microscopic Explanation: The number of collisions of electrons with vibrating atoms increases
with length, reducing drift velocity and increasing resistance.
2. Cross-sectional Area (A)
Resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the conductor:
Microscopic Explanation: Electrons have more available paths to move, reducing collisions per
unit area.
3. Nature of the Material (Resistivity, ρ)
Resistance depends on the intrinsic property of the material called resistivity.
Microscopic Explanation: Conductivity depends on the availability of free electrons or charge
carriers. Materials with more free electrons offer lower resistance.
4. Temperature (T)
Temperature coefficient of resistance
The temperature coefficient of resistance (α) of a material is defined as the change in resistance
per unit resistance per degree change in temperature. It indicates how the resistance of a material
varies with temperature.
Temperature has a major effect on resistance.
For metals (conductors): Resistance increases with temperature (positive temperature coefficient).
Reason: Atomic vibrations increase with temperature → more collisions with electrons → drift
velocity decreases → resistance increases.
Formula: 𝑅𝑡=𝑅0(1+𝛼Δ𝑇), where 𝛼= temperature coefficient.
For semiconductors: Resistance decreases with temperature (negative temperature coefficient).
Reason: Thermal energy excites more electrons to the conduction band → more charge carriers
→ higher conductivity → lower resistance.
For electrolytes: Resistance decreases with temperature because ions move faster in the solution
as viscosity decreases.
For insulators: Resistance remains very high and almost constant, slight decrease only at very
high temperatures.
5. Impurities in the Material
The presence of impurities can alter the resistance of a material:
In metals: Adding impurities increases resistance because impurities scatter electrons more,
reducing drift velocity.

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In semiconductors: Doping can either increase or decrease resistance depending on whether it
adds electrons (n-type) or holes (p-type).
6. Mechanical Factors
Stretching: Stretching a wire increases its length and reduces its cross-sectional area → resistance
increases.
Bending: Severe bends or kinks can slightly increase resistance due to strain in the crystal
structure.
Vibrations or physical strain: Can also change resistance in sensitive wires or materials.

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ENERGY BAND THEORY
Definition:
Energy Band Theory is a concept in solid-state physics that explains the behaviour of
electrons in solids and their ability to conduct electricity. It helps us understand why conductors,
semiconductors, and insulators have different electrical properties.

1. Basic Idea
In isolated atoms, electrons occupy discrete energy levels.
When atoms come together to form a solid, these discrete energy levels broaden into energy
bands due to interaction between atoms.
The two most important bands are:
 Valence Band: The highest energy band that is completely filled with electrons.
 Conduction Band: The band above the valence band where electrons can move freely to
conduct electricity.
Energy gap (𝐸𝑔): The difference in energy between the conduction band and valence band.
𝐸𝑔=𝐸𝑐−𝐸𝑣
Where:
 𝐸𝑐 = Bottom of conduction band

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  𝐸𝑣= Top of valence band
2. Classification of Materials Based on Energy Bands
Material Type Energy Gap Behaviour Examples

Conductor (Metal) Very small or zero Valence band overlaps with Copper, Aluminium
conduction band → free
electrons → high
conductivity

Semiconductor Small (≈1 eV) Few electrons move at Silicon, Germanium

room temperature,
conductivity increases with
temperature

Insulator Large (>5 eV) Very few electrons can Glass, Rubber
jump to conduction band
→ very low conductivity

CONDUCTION MECHANISM
Conduction mechanism refers to the way electric current flows through different types of
materials. The mechanism depends on the type of charge carriers present (electrons, holes, or
ions) and the material’s atomic structure.

Material Type Charge Resistance Conduction Temperature Examples

Carrier mechanism Effect
Conductor Free Low Free Increases with Copper,
electrons electrons temperature Aluminium
move under
electric field
Semiconductor Electrons & Medium Thermal Decreases Silicon,
holes excitation of with Germanium
electron- temperature
hole pair
Insulator Very few Very high Almost no Almost Rubber, Glass
electrons conduction constant
Electrolyte Ions Medium Ions move Decreases Salt solution,
towards with CuSO₄
electrodes temperature
Significance
Understanding conduction mechanisms helps in:
Choosing the right materials for wires, semiconductors, and insulators
Explaining temperature-dependent resistance

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Designing electrical devices and sensors
STUDY OF CONDUCTOR
A conductor is a material that allows electric current to flow easily due to the presence of a large
number of free electrons. Metals are the most common conductors because they have loosely
bound valence electrons that can move freely under an electric field.
1. Characteristics of Conductors
 Low Resistance: Conductors offer very little opposition to the flow of current.
 High Conductivity: Large number of free electrons → high current for a given
voltage.
 Temperature Dependence: Resistance increases with temperature (positive
temperature coefficient).
 Energy Band Structure: Valence band and conduction band overlap → electrons can
move freely.
 Physical Properties: Usually metallic, shiny, ductile, and malleable.

2. Conduction Mechanism in Conductors

 Free electrons in the conduction band move under the influence of an electric field.
 Collisions with vibrating ions in the lattice cause resistance.
 Higher temperature → more lattice vibrations → more collisions → increased
resistance.
3. Examples of Conductors
 Copper (Cu) – used in wires
 Aluminium (Al) – used in overhead power lines
 Silver (Ag) – highest conductivity, used in electronics
 Gold (Au) – used in high-quality connectors

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 4. Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
Metals have a positive temperature coefficient (α > 0).
Resistance at temperature T is given by:
𝑅𝑡=𝑅0(1+𝛼Δ𝑇)
𝑅0 = resistance at reference temperature
𝛼. = temperature coefficient of resistance
Δ𝑇 =𝑇−𝑇0
Observation: As temperature rises, resistance increases linearly for most metals.
5. Microscopic Explanation
 Free electrons move in a random direction in the absence of an electric field.
 When a voltage is applied, electrons drift in a specific direction.
 Resistance arises due to collisions with vibrating lattice ions.
 Example: In copper wire, electrons move easily at room temperature, but as the wire
heats up, collisions increase, raising resistance.
6. Applications of Conductors
 Electrical wiring in homes, schools, and industries
 Power transmission lines
 Components in electronic devices (connectors, contacts)
 Heating elements (due to resistance and heat generation)

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STUDY OF SEMICONDUCTOR
A semiconductor is a material that has conductivity between that of a conductor and an insulator.
Its conductivity increases with temperature or when impurities (dopants) are added. Common
semiconductors include silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge).
1. Characteristics of Semiconductors
 Moderate Resistance: Resistance is neither too low (like metals) nor too high (like
insulators).
 Temperature Dependence: Resistance decreases with an increase in temperature
(negative temperature coefficient).
 Energy Band Structure: Small energy gap (~1 eV) between valence and conduction
band.
 Charge Carriers: Conduction occurs through electrons and holes.
 Effect of Doping: Addition of small impurities can significantly increase conductivity (n-
type or p-type semiconductors).

2. Conduction Mechanism
 At room temperature, a few electrons gain thermal energy and jump from the valence
band to the conduction band, leaving behind holes.
 Both electrons (in conduction band) and holes (in valence band) act as charge carriers,
allowing current to flow.
 As temperature increases, more electron-hole pairs are generated → conductivity
increases → resistance decreases

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Microscopic Explanation:
 Thermal excitation provides energy to break covalent bonds → electrons move to
conduction band.
 Doping adds extra electrons (n-type) or creates holes (p-type) → enhances conduction.
3. Examples of Semiconductors
 Silicon (Si) – widely used in electronics and solar cells
 Germanium (Ge) – used in diodes and transistors
 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – used in high-speed devices and LEDs
4. Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
 Semiconductors have a negative temperature coefficient (α < 0).
 Resistance decreases with increasing temperature:
 Observation: As temperature rises, electrons and holes increase → resistance decreases.
5. Applications of Semiconductors
 Electronic devices: Diodes, transistors, ICs
 Solar cells: Convert sunlight into electricity
 Thermistors: Temperature sensors
 LEDs: Light-emitting diodes for displays and lighting

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STUDY OF INSULATOR
An insulator is a material that does not allow electric current to pass easily because it has very
few or no free charge carriers. Insulators are used to prevent leakage of current and protect
electrical devices and users.
1. Characteristics of Insulators
 Very High Resistance: Offers strong opposition to current flow.
 Low Conductivity: Conductivity is extremely low; almost no current flows.
 Temperature Dependence: Resistance remains nearly constant; slight decrease only at
very high temperatures.
 Energy Band Structure: Large energy gap (>5 eV) between valence and conduction
bands.
 Charge Carriers: Very few free electrons; conduction is negligible under normal
conditions.

2. Conduction Mechanism
 In insulators, almost all electrons are bound to atoms in the valence band.
 The energy gap between valence and conduction bands is very large → electrons cannot
jump to the conduction band under normal conditions.
 Very high applied voltage or extreme temperature may allow a small current to flow.
Microscopic Explanation:
 Few electrons can move → almost no conduction occurs.
 No free charge carriers → almost infinite resistance at room temperature.

3. Examples of Insulators
 Rubber – used for insulating wires and gloves

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  Glass – used in electrical insulators and high-voltage devices
 Plastic – used in covering wires, electronic devices
4. Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
 Insulators have nearly zero temperature coefficient at normal temperatures.
 Slight decrease in resistance at very high temperatures due to some electron excitation.
5. Applications of Insulators
 Wire insulation: Prevents electric shocks and short circuits
 High-voltage equipment: Supports conductors without allowing current leakage
 Electronic devices: Prevents accidental current flow between components
 Household applications: Covers switches, plugs, and wires

STUDY OF ELECTROLYTE
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An electrolyte is a substance that conducts electricity through the movement of ions when
dissolved in water or melted. Unlike metals or semiconductors, the current in electrolytes is
carried by ions, not electrons.
1. Characteristics of Electrolytes
 Moderate Resistance: Not as low as metals, but allows current to flow due to ions.
 Charge Carriers: Positive and negative ions (cations and anions).
 Temperature Dependence: Resistance decreases with increase in temperature as ions
move faster.
 Examples: Salt solution (NaCl in water), Copper sulfate solution (CuSO₄), acids (HCl),
and bases (NaOH).

2. Conduction Mechanism
 In an electrolyte, current is carried by ions:
 Cations (positive ions) move toward the cathode.
 Anions (negative ions) move toward the anode.
 Movement of ions constitutes the electric current.
 Higher temperature → decreased viscosity → ions move faster → resistance decreases.
Microscopic Explanation:
 Electric field applies force on ions → ions drift toward opposite electrodes.
 Collisions with solvent molecules and other ions create resistance.
 Conduction is different from metals, as electrons do not move freely in the solution.

3. Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

 Electrolytes have a negative temperature coefficient (α < 0).

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  As temperature increases:
 Ion mobility increases
 Resistance decreases
 This is opposite to metals, where resistance increases with temperature.
4. Applications of Electrolytes
 Batteries: Chemical reactions produce ions → electric current flows
 Electroplating: Deposition of metal ions on surfaces
 Electrolysis: Industrial extraction of metals, purification of substances
 Conductivity measurement: Used in water quality testing

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF RESISTANCE

1. Experimental Setup

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 S. No Apparatus Purpose
1 DC power supply Provides constant voltage
2 Ammeter Measures current through the sample
3 Voltmeter Measures voltage across the sample
4 Rheostat Controls current in the circuit
5 Conductor sample Copper/aluminium wire
6 Semiconductor sample Silicon diode or thermistor
7 Insulator sample Rubber or mica sheet
8 Electrolyte solution NaCl solution or CuSO₄ solution
9 Thermometer Measures sample temperature
10 Water bath Provides a controlled temperature environment
11 Stand and clamp Holds sample and apparatus in place
12 Connecting wires Completes the circuit

PROCEDURE
1. Connect the sample (conductor/semiconductor/insulator/electrolyte) in series with
ammeter and rheostat; connect voltmeter across the sample.
2. Place solid samples in a water bath or electrodes in the electrolyte solution.
3. Switch on the power supply and adjust the rheostat for steady current.
4. Gradually increase temperature in small steps.
5. Record voltage, current, and temperature at each step.
6. Calculate Resistance (Ω) using R = V/I
7. Repeat for all materials and plot Resistance vs Temperature graphs.

OBSERVATIONS
1. Conductor (Copper, Aluminium)

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 Temperature (°C) Voltage (V) Current (A) Resistance (Ω)
30 2.0 0.50 4.0
40 2.0 0.48 4.17
50 2.0 0.46 4.35
60 2.0 0.44 4.55
70 2.0 0.42 4.76

Observation: Resistance increases with temperature (positive temperature coefficient).

2. Semiconductor (e.g., Silicon Thermistor)

Temperature (°C) Voltage (V) Current (A) Resistance (Ω)
30 2.0 0.02 100
40 2.0 0.03 66.7
50 2.0 0.04 50
60 2.0 0.05 40
70 2.0 0.06 33.3

Observation: Resistance decreases with temperature (negative temperature coefficient).

3. Insulator (e.g., Rubber Strip)

Temperature (°C) Voltage (V) Current (A) Resistance (Ω)
30 2.0 0.0001 20000
40 2.0 0.00011 18182
50 2.0 0.00012 16667
60 2.0 0.00013 15385
70 2.0 0.00014 14286

Observation: Resistance is very high; slight decrease at higher temperatures.

4. Electrolyte (e.g., NaCl Solution)
Temperature (°C) Voltage (V) Current (A) Resistance (Ω)
30 2.0 0.05 40
40 2.0 0.06 33.3
50 2.0 0.07 28.6
60 2.0 0.08 25
70 2.0 0.09 22.2

Observation: Resistance decreases with temperature due to increased ion mobility.

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RESULT
From the experiment on variation of resistance with temperature for different materials, the
following results were observed:
1. Conductor (Copper Wire)
Resistance increases with temperature.
Positive temperature coefficient of resistance.
Explanation: As temperature rises, the lattice ions vibrate more, causing more collisions for
free electrons, which increases resistance.
Observation: Resistance rose from 4.0 Ω at 30°C to 4.76 Ω at 70°C.

2. Semiconductor (Silicon Thermistor)

Resistance decreases with temperature.
Negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
Explanation: Thermal energy excites more electrons from the valence band to the conduction
band, increasing conductivity.
Observation: Resistance decreased from 100 Ω at 30°C to 33.3 Ω at 70°C.

3. Insulator (Rubber Strip)

Resistance remains very high, slight decrease at high temperature.
Explanation: Large energy gap prevents electrons from moving to conduction band. Only a
small increase in conduction at higher temperature.
Observation: Resistance decreased slightly from 20,000 Ω at 30°C to 14,286 Ω at 70°C.

4. Electrolyte (NaCl Solution)

Resistance decreases with temperature.
Explanation: Increased temperature enhances ion mobility, which increases current and
reduces resistance.
Observation: Resistance decreased from 40 Ω at 30°C to 22.2 Ω at 70°C.

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PRECAUTIONS
 Check all connections before switching on the power supply.
 Do not touch live wires or electrodes while the circuit is powered.
 Gradually increase temperature and wait for stabilization before taking readings.
 Use insulated wires and handle the water bath carefully.
 For electrolytes, ensure electrodes do not touch the container and avoid direct contact.
 Take accurate readings of voltage, current, and temperature.

SOURCES OF ERROR
 Instrumental Errors: Inaccurate readings from the ammeter, voltmeter, or thermometer.
 Connection Errors: Loose or improper wiring causing fluctuating current.
 Temperature Fluctuations: Inconsistent heating or cooling of samples.
 Human Error: Mistakes in recording readings or calculating resistance.
 Sample Imperfections: Variations in thickness, purity, or surface condition of the
materials.
 Electrolyte Issues: Evaporation or uneven distribution of ions in solution affecting
resistance.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Serway, R.A., & Jewett, J.W. Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 10 th Edition, Cengage
Learning, 2020.
2. Halliday, D., Resnick, R., & Walker, J. Fundamentals of Physics, 11th Edition, Wiley, 2018.
3. Beiser, A. Concepts of Modern Physics, 7th Edition, McGraw-Hill Education, 2017.
4. NCERT Physics Textbook, Class 12, 2024.
5. Physics Laboratory Manual, Class 12, NCERT, India, 2024.
6. Online Resources:
7. [Link]
8. [Link]

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