Earth and Life Science Module 3

Animal Reproduction
Lesson 1

Reproduction is the biological process by which new “offspring” (individual

organisms) are produced from their “parents.” It is necessary for the survival of a
species.

What’s In

In the previous lesson, you have learned how unifying themes in the study of life
show the connections among living things and how they interact with each other and
with their environment. Let us review first about this before proceeding to the next
topic.

While bacteria live for 15–80 minutes, some animals for half a century and some
plants for hundreds or thousands of years, organisms do not live forever. Without a
mechanism for reproduction life would come to an end.

How do different animals ensure continuity of species?

There are two types of reproduction that exists in living organisms:

1. Asexual reproduction is common among lower form of animals. The fusion

of egg cell and sperm cell does not occur, reproduction is mainly through
mitosis which means a clone of the parent.

In a stable or predictable environment, asexual reproduction is an effective

means of reproduction because all the offspring will be adapted to that
environment. In an unstable or unpredictable environment, species that
reproduce asexually may be at a disadvantage because all the offspring are
genetically identical and may not be adapted to different conditions.

2. Sexual reproduction is mostly observed by more complex animals. It

involves the production of offspring by the fusion of haploid gametes (sperm
and ovum).

The combination of the genes from both parents increases the chances of
species variation. Therefore, species extinction is highly unlikely.

A. Methods of Asexual Reproduction:

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1. Budding- results from the outgrowth of a part of the body leading to a separation
of the “bud” from the original organism and the formation of two individuals, one
smaller than the other. The offspring typically remain attached to the parent until it is
mature.

Figure 1. Hydra reproduce asexually through budding.

(Adapted from [Link]

2. Fragmentation and Regeneration- fragmentation is when an animal’s body

breaks into different parts, which later regenerate to form several individuals.

If the animal is capable of fragmentation, and the parts are big enough, a separate
individual will regrow from each part. Fragmentation may occur through accidental
damage, damage from predators, or as a natural form of reproduction.

Note that in fragmentation, there is generally a noticeable difference in the size of the
individuals, whereas in fission, two individuals of approximately the same size are
formed.

Figure 2. Sea star reproduce through fragmentation and regeneration.

(Adapted from [Link]

3. Fission- is the separation/division of an organism to form individuals of

approximately same size. An organism appears to split itself into two parts and
which will then form new organisms.

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 Figure 3. Sea anemone reproduce asexually through fission.
(Adapted from [Link]
4. Parthenogenesis- is like apomixes in plants, where the egg cell develops without
fertilization. It can more accurately be termed as an “incomplete form of sexual
reproduction.

Figure 4. Parthenogenesis
(Adapted from [Link]

B. Variations on Sexual Reproduction

1. Hermaphroditism occurs in animals where one individual has both male and
female reproductive parts. Hermaphrodites may self-fertilize or may mate with
another of their species, fertilizing each other and both producing offspring. Self-
fertilization is common in animals that have limited mobility or are not motile.

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Sequential hermaphroditism occurs when an individual reverses its sex during its
lifetime. There are two types of sequential hermaphrodites. When individuals start
out life as a female and change sex to male, this is called protogynous. A classic
example is the wrasse (reef fish). If there is no male present, usually the largest,
oldest female changes and becomes the dominant male and will begin to produce
sperm within a week. When individuals start out life as a male and change to female,
this is called protandrous. An example of a protandrous species is oysters. All
oysters start out life as males due to their small size. As the oyster grows and attains
a certain size, it will change into a female and produce eggs.

2. External fertilization usually occurs in aquatic environments where both eggs

and sperm are released into the water. After the sperm reaches the egg, fertilization
takes place. Most external fertilization happens during the process of spawning
where one or several females release their eggs and the male(s) release sperm in
the same area, at the same time. The spawning may be triggered by environmental
signals, such as water temperature or the length of daylight. Nearly all fish spawn, as
do crustaceans (such as crabs and shrimp), mollusks, squid, and echinoderms (such
as sea urchins and sea cucumbers). Frogs, and mosquitoes also spawn.

Figure 5. An example of spawning.

(Adapted from [Link]

3. Internal fertilization, the union of egg and sperm occurs within the female
reproductive tract. Animals that undergo in this type of reproduction produce
offspring in any of the following ways: oviparity, ovoviviparity, and viviparity.

 Oviparity – after the eggs are fertilized internally, it would complete its
development outside the mother’s body. The egg would receive its
nourishment through its yolk. This is found in some bony and cartilaginous
fish (including clown fish and blue tangs), most reptiles, some amphibians, all
birds, and a few mammals (monotremes). Organisms that lay eggs are
oviparous.

 Ovoviviparity – the eggs are also fertilized internally and receive its
nourishment through its yolk. However, eggs will complete its development

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 within the mother. They are then fully developed when they are hatched and
released by the mother. This is common in some bony fish (including mollies,
guppies, and mosquito fish), some cartilaginous fish, and many reptiles.
Animals are ovoviviparous when the fertilized eggs are retained within the
female’s reproductive tract and then she gives live birth.

 Viviparity – the eggs are developed internally and receive nourishment

directly from the mother’s blood through placenta rather than from the yolk.
This can be found in most cartilaginous fish (including lemon sharks), some
amphibians, a few reptiles, and almost all mammals including humans.
Organisms that give birth to their young are called viviparous.

Figure 6. The fusion of the gametes occurs inside the female body and the zygote
(fertilized egg) is formed inside the female body.
(Adapted from [Link]

Here are some ways through which different representative animals reproduce.

PHYLUM Animals & Method of Reproduction

Porifera Sponges – budding (asexual) ;
hermaphroditic (sexual)

Cnidaria Hydra, Corals – budding

Sea Anemone – fission

Platyhelminthes (Flatworms) Planaria – fission

Nematoda (Roundworms) Ascaris – internal fertilization

Annelida (Segmented Earthworm – hermaphroditic

Worms)
Mollusca Clams – hermaphroditic
Squid – external fertilization

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Arthropoda Bees, Stick insects, Aphids, Ants –
parthenogenesis

Echinodermata Sea star, Starfish – fragmentation &

regeneration
Sea cucumbers (genus Holothuria) – fission
Sea urchin – external fertilization

Chordata (Vertebrates) Frogs – external fertilization

Birds, Mammals, Reptiles – internal fertilization
Komodo Dragon - parthenogenesis
Hammerhead Shark – parthenogenesis