4

ANALOG MODULATION

INTRODUCTION

The process of communication involves transfer of information from one location to another.
Radio waves can travel long distances through various modes of propagation. But the low
frequency audio, video or similar signals cannot travel long distance by itself. Hence the
necessity of adding the signals on to the EM radio wave has come into reckoning. To
facilitate efficient and controlled transfer of information, modulation is required. Modulation
is a process whereby characteristics of carrier wave are varied in accordance with a
message signal, the modulating signal.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:

 Appreciate the need of modulation

 Define AM, FM, Phase Modulation and PWM.
 Learn about the spectrum of modulated signals, side bands and its
power.
 Understand the Vestigial side band transmission system.
 Appreciate the need of Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis in FM
 Know the generation of AM & FM signals, advantages of FM over AM.

NEED OF MODULATION

There are many advantages of modulation. These include:

 The message signal can be modulated into a region of frequency spectrum where there
is lower noise and interference and thus maximizing the efficiency of transfer of
information.
 Two or more message signals can be accommodated into non-overlapping frequency
bands and transmitted together over the same channel.
 The physical sizes of transmitter, radio receiver and antennas tend to decrease with
increasing carrier frequency of modulation. This also results into lower cost for the
system.

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Induction Course (Fundamental)

 The modulation permits the bandwidth of the message signal to be increased or

decreased.
 To differentiate among transmissions (stations)
 Maximum to minimum frequency ratio can be reduced to minimum by modulating the
signal on a high frequency.

TYPES OF ANALOG MODULATION

In general, there are two types of analog modulation:

a) Amplitude Modulation (AM) b) Angle Modulation

Angle modulation is further divided into two forms:

i) Frequency Modulation (FM) ii) Phase Modulation.

AMPLITUDE MODULATION
If the amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating
signal, it is called amplitude modulation. This modulation is shown in figure 1. We can see
this on the screen of oscilloscope.

Fig. 1: Amplitude Modulation

ANALYSIS OF AM SIGNAL

Let carrier, Vc(t) = AcCos(ct + )

Modulating signal, Vm(t) = AmCosmt
Then, AM modulated signal,

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 Analog Modulation

= Carrier + Upper side band + Lower side band

Where,
Ac = Peak amplitude of the carrier
Am = Peak Amplitude of the modulating signal
c = Angular frequency of the carrier
m = Angular frequency of the modulating signal
 = Phase difference between carrier and modulating signal.

[When Am = Ac, m = 1. This is known as 100% modulation]

SPECTRUM OF AM SIGNAL

The spectrum of AM signal analysed above is shown in figure 2. Spectrum analyser

displays this on its screen.

Fig. 2: Spectrum of AM Signal

Power in the carrier,

Power in the upper sideband,

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Induction Course (Fundamental)

Power in the upper sideband (Pusb) = Power in the lower side band (Plsb)

Hence total power, Pt = Pc + Pusb + Plsb

= + +

IMPORTANCE OF HIGH PERCENTAGE OF MODULATION

Thus we should give as high as percentage of modulation as possible since intelligence is

contained in the side bands.

Eq (1) can also be written as

This is a useful relationship since current is the directly measured parameter of the
transmitter output.

Similarly,

EFFECTIVE MODULATION INDEX

If a carrier is modulated by more than a single sine wave, the effective modulation index is
given by

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 Analog Modulation

meff should not exceed 1 otherwise distortion will occur.

Modulation index is defined as

Bandwidth,

Example: An AM transmitter gives RF carrier output power of 10 kW and can be

modulated to a maximum of 80%. Calculate the total power in the modulated signal
and the bandwidth required if the highest modulating frequency is 5 kHz.

Solution : It is given that

Pc = 10 kW
ma = 80% = 0.8
fm = 5 kHz

Hence the modulated power,

Bandwidth = 2fm = 2 x 5 kHz = 10kHz.

VARIATION OF AM SIGNALS

DSB - FC : Double sidebands with full carrier. This is used in MW and SW

Transmitters.

DSB - SC : Double sidebands with suppressed carrier. This method is used for
transmission of Chroma signals in TV and stereo signal in FM
transmitter.

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Induction Course (Fundamental)

VSB : Vestigial sideband. This method utilises one side band (usually USB)
with carrier and a portion of other sideband. This is used for picture
(video) transmission in television.

SSB : Single Side band: In this method only one side band (without carrier) is
utilised for transmission. There is considerable saving in power and
bandwidth. But as the carrier is not transmitted it becomes difficult to
recover the signal at the receiver end. Hence the receiver circuit is
complex. The use of this method is restricted to special purpose only,
such as military communications.

ISB : Independent side band: In this method each side band carries a
different message and hence they are independent of each other. A
reduced carrier is also inserted so as to facilitate an easy detection.
This method is used in Telephone system.

VESTIGIAL SIDE BAND TRANSMISSION

Low frequency components in the video signal give rise to side bands very close to the
carrier frequency. These side bands are difficult to remove by physically realisable filters.
Low video frequencies contain the most important information of the picture and their
suppression would lead to phase distortion and will be seen by the 'eye' as 'smear' on TV
screen.

Therefore, as a compromise, only a part of the LSB is suppressed. The Radiated signal
consists of:

 Full upper sideband

 Carrier and
 The VESTIGE (remaining part of partially suppressed LSB).

This type of transmission is called VSB.

In 625 line system, frequencies up to 0.75 MHz in the LSB are fully radiated. As a result,
transmission is DSB for the lower video frequencies (main body of picture information). An
attenuation slope of 0.5 MHz is allowed at either end. This also prevents loss in horizontal
detail if slope were not there. (HF components of video modulation determine the amount
of horizontal detail). VSB signal has been shown in Fig. 3 (a), (b) & (c).

Total BW = 5 + 0.5 + 0.75 + 0.5

Reqd for Atten. Slope Lower video Attn. Slope at
Video signal on higher end frequency lower end

+ 0.25
Guard Band

= 7 MHz

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 Analog Modulation

Fig. 3(a): Total channel bandwidth using double sideband picture carrier

Fig. 3(b): Total channel bandwidth using vestigial lower sideband

Fig. 3(c): C.C.I.R. (Indian and European) TV Channel sideband spectrum

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Induction Course (Fundamental)

GENERATION OF AM SIGNAL

There are two methods of generation of AM signal:

i) Low Level Modulation System

ii) High Level Modulation System

LOW LEVEL MODULATION

This modulation process generates many additional frequencies and requires filtering. To
avoid loss of power in filtering, it should be generated at low power level as shown in figure
4.

In low level modulation, all the amplifiers following the modulator stage should be linear.
This system of modulation is used in video transmission.

Fig. 4: Low Level Modulation

A = Stable Oscillator D = Amplifier Chain

B = Buffer Amplifier E = Intermediate Power Amplifier
C = Modulator F = Final Power Amplifier

HIGH LEVEL MODULATION

This method does not give rise to many additional frequencies and so filtering is not
required. This is best suited for higher power amplification. Medium wave and short wave
transmissions use this method of modulation. This is shown in figure 5.

High level modulator can be operated in class 'C', class 'D' or higher configuration. As the
earlier stages operate at the carrier frequency only (or, in some cases at its sub-harmonics),
all these stages can also be operated in class 'C' higher modes.

Fig.5: High Level Modulation

High level modulation leads to higher efficiency, better linearity and higher output power for
a given device. However, high level modulation requires a significantly high modulating
signal power. All modern MW & SW transmitters employ high level modulation – either
Pulse amplitude (PAM or PDM) or Pulse Step Modulation.

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 Analog Modulation

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM)

It is also known as Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM). Most of the modern vacuum
tube or solid state AM transmitters are using PDM system. Block diagram of a PDM wave
form generator is shown in fig 6 (a) & (b).

Fig.6 (a): Simplified Block Diagram of a PDM Waveform Generator

Fig.6 (b): Generated PDM Waveform

The oscillator generates a 75 KHz sine ware, which is converted into square wave by the
next stage. Then this square wave is integrated by an integrator to get triangular waveform.
The triangular wave form is mixed with the input audio signal in a summing circuit. The
output of the summing circuit is a triangular waveform that rides over the input audio signal.
This mixed signal is applied to a threshold amplifier. This amplifier functions as a switch
that is turned on whenever the value of the input audio signal exceeds a certain limit. This
results into a string of pulses in which the width of the pulse is proportional to the period of
time the triangular waveform is above the threshold. A pulse amplifier amplifies this pulse
width modulated signal to obtain the necessary power to drive the next stage. A DC offset
voltage is applied to the summing amplifier to set the carrier (no modulation) level of the
transmitter. A part of a practical circuit of class D amplifier (modulator) of RIZ 10 kW DRM
Transmitter is shown in fig 6(c). (DC+PDM) Audio is fed as VDD voltage to the MOSFETs.

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Induction Course (Fundamental)

The advantage of this PDM system is that it completely eliminates audio frequency
transformers in the transmitter, resulting into wide frequency response and low distortion.

Fig. 6(c): H-bridge Full-wave Class D Amplifier

TRAPEZOIDAL PATTERN

These patterns are used for accurate measurement of modulation index. The set up to
produce trapezoidal pattern on oscilloscope is shown in figure 7(a) and different trapezoidal
patterns are shown in figure 7(b).

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 Analog Modulation

Fig. 7(a): Producing a Trapezoidal Pattern

Fig. 7(b): Different Trapezoidal Patterns

a) Linear less than 100% modulation.

b) 100% modulation.
c) More than 100% modulation.
d) Improper phase relationship.
e) Non-symmetrical AM envelope.

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Induction Course (Fundamental)

FREQUENCY MODULATION
If the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating
signal (information), it is called frequency modulation. Frequency modulation is widely used
in VHF communication systems e.g. FM broadcasting, transmission of sound signal in TV,
Satellite Communication etc. The modulation process has been shown in figure 8.

Fig. 8: Frequency Modulated wave

The instantaneous frequency varies about the average frequency (carrier frequency) at the
rate of change of amplitude of modulating frequency.

FREQUENCY DEVIATION (ΔF)

The amount by which the frequency varies away from the average frequency (carrier
frequency) is called frequency deviation. It is proportional to the amplitude of modulating
signal. The peak difference between the minimum and maximum frequency is known as
carrier (frequency) swing. In FM broadcasting for 100 per cent modulation frequency
deviation is ±75 kHz i.e. carrier swing is 150 kHz.

Δf = fpc –fc

Where,
fpc = peak frequency of the modulated carrier ([Link] max.)
fc = frequency of the un-modulated carrier.

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 Analog Modulation

ANALYSIS OF FM WAVES

Equation of a sine wave in the generalised form is

e = A sinq. (1)

Where e is instantaneous amplitude, A is peak amplitude and q is total angular

displacement at time t.

A frequency modulated wave with sinusoidal modulation has its frequency varied according
to the amplitude of the modulating signal. If Df is the maximum deviation of frequency
from average, then instantaneous frequency is

Integrating both sides

Where is called the Modulation Index of the FM wave.

Thus for a given frequency deviation modulation index varies inversely as the modulating
frequency.

The frequency components actually contained in the FM wave can be determined by

expanding RHS of equation (3).
An FM wave corresponding to sinusoidal modulation is made up of several frequency
components spaced apart by the modulating frequency. Thus an FM wave has in addition
to the side bands present in an AM wave, higher order sidebands as well. Amplitudes of
different frequency components depend upon mf, the modulation index. When the
modulation index is less than 0.5 that is when the frequency deviation is less than half the
modulation frequency the second and higher order components are relatively small and the

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Induction Course (Fundamental)

frequency band required to accommodate the essential part of the signal is the same as in
amplitude modulation. This is called Narrowband FM and is used for speech
communications. When mf is larger than one (frequency deviation greater than modulating
frequency) there are important higher order sideband components contained in the wave
and it is called wide band FM. Practical values of modulation index vary considerably with
frequency.

If the amplitude and frequency of a modulating signal are increased in the same ratio, value
of mf remains the same and the number of sidebands also remains unchanged. The
relative amplitudes of the carrier and sidebands is the same, giving the spectrum pattern but
the sideband spacing is greater because of the increased modulation frequency.

A typical spectrum pattern for a FM wave for a modulation index of 5 is shown in fig. 9. It is
seen that modulating frequency does two things:

1. Fixes the separation of sidebands.

2. Determines the rapidity with which the sideband distribution changes.

Fig. 9: Spectrum of FM Wave for a Modulation Index of 5

SIDEBAND POWER

In FM signal, the carrier power diminishes during modulation and it is possible for one or
more sidebands to contain more power than the carrier. The power withdrawn from the
carrier during modulation is distributed among the various sidebands. The louder the
modulating signals, the greater will be the energy that is taken away from the carrier. It is
therefore, possible for the carrier, during one of these modulation sweeps, to contain no
energy at all. This is quite logical because the FM signal does not vary in amplitude. The
only way to satisfy this condition during modulation is to transfer part of the energy to the
sidebands. The power transfer is a characteristic of frequency modulation.

When the intensity of the audio signal is increased the total number of sidebands also
increases i.e. the energy of the FM wave is shifted away from the carrier with every

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 Analog Modulation

sideband and the carrier affected. Thus, energy is taken by some and given up by others.
The total energy under all conditions remains constant.

With an index of 5, there are 8 important sidebands on each side of the carrier with an index
of 7, the sidebands increase to 10.

It is interesting to note that when the modulation index is of the order of 0.5 or less, only two
sidebands are formed, which is similar to AM operation with one modulating frequency.
It is quite confusing to note that although the carrier frequency in the FM transmitter is not
shifted beyond the 75 kHz limits, sidebands do appear beyond these limits. As a physical
analogy, consider a man moving his finger back and forth at the centre of a small pool of
water. Although the man may move his finger only slightly, water ripples will appear far
beyond this little area. The greater the distance covered by man’s moving finger, the larger
will be the spread of ripples. In FM, the greater the carrier swing, the greater the number of
sidebands obtained.

In actual practice, it rarely happens that a 15 kHz note will have enough amplitude to
spread the carrier to +75 kHz limits.

As the frequency of the modulating signal is lowered the number of sidebands that extends
beyond the 75 kHz limits also decreases until at 50 Hz a full carrier swing will just produce
sidebands up to the 75 kHz limits.

BANDWIDTH IN FM

In FM, the BW is based on the number of significant sidebands, which depends upon
modulation index mf. In practice, the number of significant sidebands is determined by
acceptable distortion. These contain about 98% of the radiated power. By way of best
approximation, the Carson’s Rule (rule of thumb) gives a simple formula for bandwidth as

BW = 2(1+mf)fm
= 2(Df + fm)

Fig. 10: BW of FM Signal

For modulation index of 5 and maximum modulating frequency of 15 kHz, we have:

BW = 180 kHz

A guard band of 20 kHz (10 kHz on each side) is provided to prevent adjacent channel
interference. Thus the maximum permissible BW in FM broadcasting is 200 kHz. For
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Induction Course (Fundamental)

narrow band FM (mf<0.5), the BW is the same as in AM i.e. 2 f m. When the modulation
index is very large (say>20), then the BW becomes 2Df i.e. 150 kHz. For example, if fm =
100 Hz and Df = 75 kHz.

In this case the BW will be 150 kHz, but for fm = 15 kHz, BW will be 180 kHz.

NOISE CONSIDERATIONS IN FM

FM offers the advantage of a much better noise performance as compared to AM. The
noise produces two types of modulation of the carrier:

a) It changes the resultant amplitude of the signal thereby resulting in AM noise which
is filtered out by the amplitude limiter in FM receiver (before detection).
b) It produces phase modulation as the phase of the resultant signal is different from
the phase of the original signal.

This phase modulation results in indirect frequency modulation, therefore, the noise
indirectly frequency modulates the carrier.

The corresponding noise voltage at the output of the FM detector is proportional to

frequency, the amount by which the noise frequency is away from the carrier frequency, fc.
In other words, we can say that the noise at the detector output increases linearly as

Fn

fn
Fig.11: Noise characteristics at the detector output

the modulating frequency increases. This straight-line relationship between noise

frequency (fn) and peak frequency deviation due to noise (ΔFn) plays an important role in
the application of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis to the audio signal.
FM is a superior type of modulation system mainly because of its noise suppressing
qualities. In an AM system noise can interfere even with the desired signal 100 times
stronger and render the reception poor but in FM a noise signal half as strong as the

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 Analog Modulation

desired signal can be suppressed completely. This effect becomes more and more
pronounced as the frequency of the interfering signal approaches that of the desired
signal so much so that the weaker noise signal is completely overpowered when their
frequencies become equal. This is known as CAPTURE EFFECT.

COMPARISON OF NOISE PERFORMANCE OF FM OVER AM

NOISE IN NARROWBAND FM

Fig.12: (a) Narrow band FM (mf = 1) (b) wideband FM (mf = f)

Assuming that noise is uniformly spread over the receiver bandwidth, the noise output of
an AM receiver remains constant and will be a rectangle. But in FM, the noise output is
triangular and increases as we move away from the carrier frequency as shown in Fig.12

It is seen from Fig.12 (a) that the average improvement for narrow band FM over AM
(point A) will be 2:1 at the average audio frequency of 7.5 kHz at which FM noise appears
to be half of the AM noise voltage. But in reality, the picture is more complex and in fact
the FM improvement is :1 as a voltage ratio. This gives an increase of 3:1 in power
signal-to-noise ratio for narrowband FM as compared to AM. This is equivalent to 4.75 dB
improvement, which is quite worthwhile.

NOISE IN WIDEBAND FM

In AM, the maximum permissible modulation index m= 1, but in FM there is no such limit.
It is the maximum frequency deviation that is limited to 75 kHz in wideband VHF sound
broadcasting service. At the highest audio frequency of 15 kHz the modulation index in
FM is 5. It will be much higher at lower audio frequencies e.g. if modulating frequency is 1
kHz, the maximum value of modulation index in FM will be 75.

It may be seen from figure 13 that as the modulation index is increased from m f =1 to mf =
4, the signal-to-noise voltage ratio will increase proportionately. Thus the S/N power ratio
in a FM receiver is proportional to the square of the modulation index. For m f = 5 and
modulating frequency of 15 kHz, there will be a 25:1 (14 dB) improvement for FM, as
compared to when mf = 1. No such improvement is possible in AM. For an adequate C/N

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Induction Course (Fundamental)

ratio at the detector input, an overall improvement of 18.75 (4.75 + 14) dB is achieved with
wideband FM as compared with AM.

Fig.13: FM noise increases with reduced modulation index, m f

PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS

According to noise triangle, the noise output of FM detector increases linearly as the
modulating frequency increases. Also we know that in a complex audio signal, the higher
audio frequencies are weaker in amplitudes. Thus it is a double tragedy for the high audio
frequencies, their amplitudes are small but they have to face higher noise levels as
compared to lower audio frequencies. To overcome this problem, the higher audio
frequencies are given an artificial boost at the transmitter in accordance with a pre-arranged
curve. This process is called pre-emphasis.

In the FM receiver, the higher audio frequencies are restored to their normal levels through
a reverse process called de-emphasis. The de-emphasis curve is the mirror image of pre-
emphasis curve as shown in figure 14.

Fig. 14 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis

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 Analog Modulation

Fig. 15 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis Circuit

Typical pre-emphasis and de-emphasis circuits are shown in Figs. 15(a) & (b)
respectively.

OTHER FORMS OF INTERFERENCE

FM offers not only an improvement in the S/N ratio but also better immunity against other
interfering signals.

a) CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE

In an FM receiver, the amplitude limiter works on the principle of passing the stronger signal
and eliminating the weaker one if the stronger signal is at least twice the amplitude of the
weaker signal. In a similar fashion, a relatively weak interfering signal (in the same
channel) from another transmitter will also be eliminated.

Suppose we are carrying a FM receiver and moving from the coverage area of one
transmitter towards that of another co-channel transmitter. The interesting phenomenon of
capture will be noted in this case.

The second transmitter is virtually inaudible till its signal is less than about half of that from
the first. After this, the second transmitter becomes quite audible in the background and
eventually dominates, ultimately finishing the first transmitter signal. Thus the moving
receiver has been captured by the second transmitter. But in AM, the effect would be totally
different, the stronger signal will dominate but the weaker one will also be heard in the
background as quite significant interference.

b) ADJACENT-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE

We have seen that FM signal with maximum deviation of 75 kHz and 50 m sec pre-
emphasis gives a rejection of 23 to 24 dB better than AM, for noise as well as interfering
signals. A guard band of 10 kHz provided on each side of the FM channel also serves to
reduce adjacent channel interference.

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Induction Course (Fundamental)

GENERATION OF FM SIGNAL

There are two methods of generation of FM signal:

a) Direct Method of FM generation.

b) Indirect Method of FM generation.

DIRECT METHOD OF FM GENERATION

i) VARACTOR DIODE MODULATOR

This modulator has been shown in fig. 16. It makes use of a varactor diode (also known as
varicap or capacitance diode). The capacitance of this diode varies with the applied bias
voltage (DC voltage + modulating voltage). The diode forms, at least partially the tuning
capacitor of the tank circuit that determines the frequency of the oscillator. The capacitance
varies with the applied modulating voltage and so does the frequency.

Fig. 16: Varactor Diode Modulator

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 Analog Modulation

Operation of the Circuit

Vo - provides a suitable bias to the varactor diode.

Cb - blocking capacitor. It blocks the DC bias voltage of varactor diode so that

operating point of transistor and bias voltage of varactor diode can be chosen
independently.
Modulating signal.
Cd - Diode function capacitance at its operating voltage.
Ct - total capacitance of the tank circuit
Ct - C + Cd

RFC Radio Frequency Choke. It blocks the oscillation going to bias voltage Vo.

The modulating signal added to DC voltage Vo through transformer T. Hence the

capacitance of varactor diode is varied in accordance with the modulating signal. This
capacitance becomes the part of the main tank circuit. Accordingly, frequency of oscillation
is controlled by the modulating signal. The FM output is taken from the collector of the
transistor through a buffer amplifier so that the load impedance on the oscillator is
essentially constant.

ii) VOLTAGE CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR MODULATOR

This circuit has been given in figure 17. It is an astable multivibractor. Its frequency of
oscillation depends upon the applied DC voltage. Hence, if the applied voltage is made to
vary in accordance with the modulating signal, by putting the DC supply and the modulating
signal voltage in series, the frequency of oscillation will vary with the modulating signal.
This type of circuit will produce a rectangular wave form of varying frequency from which it
is not difficult to derive the corresponding sinusoidal signal.

Fig. 17: VCO Modulator

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Induction Course (Fundamental)

Operation of the circuit

The circuit generates a periodic rectangular waveform. Its time period T is given by

T = 0.69 (R1 C1 + R2 C2)

With R1 = R2 and C1 = C2 we get T = 0.69 (RC + RC) = 1.38 RC

From this we find that the period T does not depend on supply voltage. It depends on the
values of R and C only. This type of multivibrator operates at a fixed frequency.

Now, if we disconnect the resistance R1 and R2 from the Vcc and connect these two
resistances to an auxiliary voltage -V (modulating signal) as shown dotted in the figure, the
frequency of oscillation becomes function of both Vcc and -V. The time period T is given
by,

Hence, now by putting V in series with Vcc and varying it we can get a variable frequency
which will be in accordance with the V (modulating signal). From this rectangular wave we
can get sinusoidal waveform by passing it through band pass filter.

INDIRECT METHOD OF FM GENERATION

ARMSTRONG METHOD

In this method frequency modulation is obtained through a phase modulator. The

modulating signal is integrated prior to modulating the carrier, so that the output of the
phase modulator becomes a frequency modulated signal as shown in fig. 18. The required
phase modulated signal is generated with the help of a double side band - SC modulator.
In this method index of modulation is limited to 0.5.

Fig. 18: Armstrong Method of FM Generation

ADVANTAGES OF FM OVER AM

1. Amplitude and hence power of FM wave is constant and independent of depth of

modulation. But in AM, modulation depth determines the transmitted power. Thus
additional energy is not required as modulation is raised.

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 Analog Modulation

2. FM is more economical than AM due to following reasons:

(a) It is possible to have Low Level Modulation in FM as the intelligence is in the

frequency variations only and the modulated signal can be passed through class C
amplifiers. But, since the AM signal contains information in amplitude variations, only
high level modulation is possible in an AM transmitter.

(b) All the transmitted power in FM is useful, whereas in AM most of it is in the carrier
which contains no useful information.

(c) Antenna gain is possible in FM due to the reason that directive antennas are used in
VHF range where the physical dimensions of the antenna are very easy to manage.

3. Better Noise Performance

Amplitude variations caused by noise are removed by having limiter in FM receiver.

This makes FM reception lot more immune to noise than AM reception.
• Noise can further be reduced in FM by increasing the frequency deviation. This is
not possible in AM as modulation cannot exceed 100 % without causing severe
distortion.
• Less adjacent- channel interference due to better planning as the commercial FM
broadcasts began in 1940s (much later than AM) ------ a guard band has been
provided as per CCIR standard frequency allocations.

• FM broadcasts operate in the VHF and UHF ranges in which there happens to be
less noise than in the MF and HF ranges occupied by AM bands.
• Due to the use of space wave propagation in which the range of operation is limited
to slightly more than line of sight, it is possible to operate several independent
transmitters with much less co-channel interference.

4. Stereo transmission is possible with FM due to its wider bandwidth

5. Additional information such as RDS, SCA can be sent along with the stereo signal

PHASE MODULATION
If the Phase of the carrier is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating
signal (information), it is called phase modulation.

ANALYSIS OF PHASE MODULATION SIGNAL

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Induction Course (Fundamental)

Let carrier,

Modulating Signal

Then, Phase Modulated Signal

Phase of carrier is varied as per amplitude of modulating signal.

Fig. 19: Phase Modulation

In FM, modulation index is directly proportional to modulating signal amplitude and inversely
to modulating frequency.

In PM, modulation index is directly proportional to modulating signal amplitude but

independent of modulating frequency.

ACTIVITIES

- Observe AM wave on oscilloscope in trapezoidal form.

- See AM signal in spectrum analyser and measure the BW of AM
modulation and its power of side bands for different percentages of
modulation index.
- See FM wave in spectrum analyser and measure the B.W. for different
modulation index.
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RECAP

In this module we have discussed the necessity of modulation, and various types of
modulation. We have learnt the B.W. of modulated signal and power in side bands.
Different methods of generating modulated signals in AM and FM are also elaborated.
Brief information has been added on PDM. FM though is short on coverage, has got
advantages over AM especially on noise considerations. This has been dealt in
detail. This module will help you in appreciating the modulation principles, methods,
BW etc.

FURTHER READINGS

1. Electronic Communication – Kennedy

2. Communication – Dennis Roddy & J Coolen

****

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