Chapter 24 Learning Objectives
1. Identify components of the digestive (GI) tract.
Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus.
2. Identify the accessory organs of digestion.
Salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, teeth, tongue.
3. Describe the major functions of the digestive system.
The ingestion, propulsion, mechanical, chemical, absorption, defecation.
4. Identify and describe the 4 common layers of the GI tract wall.
a. Identify the components of the mucosa
b. Identify the components of the submucosa.
c. Identify the components of the muscularis.
i. Describe the difference in the muscularis in the stomach versus other areas
of the GI tract.
Mucosa: muscularis mucokae, lamina propria, epithelium.
Submucosa: connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatics, glands, submucosal plexus.
Muscularis externa: smooth muscle (internal circular, external longitudinal), plexus
myenteric, stomach also has an internal oblique layer.
Serosa (or adventitia): external connective tissue, serosa on which the visceral peritoneum
lies.
a. Epithelial, lamina propria, muscularis mucokae components.
b. Ingredients of submucosa: connective tissue, blood and lymph vessels, glands,
submucosal plexus.
c. Parts of muscularis: circular and longitudinal; stomach has oblique layer.
i. Distinction in muscularis in stomach: there are three layers (oblique, circular,
longitudinal) in the stomach and two in other areas.
5. Describe the nervous innervation of the digestive system (ENS).
a. Differentiate between myenteric and enteric plexuses.
b. Describe, in general terms, the effects seen due to stimulation of the myenteric
and submucosal plexuses.
c. Describe the effect of parasympathetic stimulation on digestive activities.
d. Describe the effect of sympathetic stimulation on digestive activities.
GI motility and secretion is controlled by enteric nervous system.
a. Distinguish between submucosal and myenteric plexuses:
Myenteric (Auerbach) plexus: regulates GI motility.
Meissner (submucosal) plexus: regulates secretion and local blood.
b. Effects of stimulation:
Myenteric: augmented motility.
Submucosal: hypersecretion and local vasodilation.
c. Parasympathetic effect: stimulates digestion, motility and secretion.
d. Sympathetic effect: slows down digestion, motility and secretion.
6. Describe the peritoneum.
a. Identify the folds of the peritoneum.
b. Identify the organ(s) that the folds of the peritoneum help anchor in place (if
applicable).
Lining of abdominal cavity (parietal) and organs (visceral).
a. Peritoneal folds: mesentery, mesocolon, falciform ligament, greater and lesser omentum.
b. Anchored organs Include small intestine (mesentery), transverse colon (transverse
mesocolon), liver (falciform ligament), stomach (greater and lesser omentum).
7. Identify and describe the location of the salivary glands.
Parotid (along ears), submandibular (under mandible), sublingual (under tongue).
8. Identify the functions of salivary glands and the saliva they secrete.
Produce saliva to lubricate food, initiate chemical digestion (amylase) and prevent infection
by pathogens.
9. Identify the functions of the tongue.
Food manipulation, swallowing initiation, taste buds, speech aid.
10. Describe the anatomy of a tooth.
Crown (covered by enamel), neck (covered by gingiva), root (covered by cementum), pulp cavity
(contain nerves and vessels), dentin.
11. List the major categories of teeth and their associated functions.
Incisors - cutting; canines - tearing; premolars - grinding, molars - crushing and grinding.
12. Identify the sections of the pharynx.
Nares, pharynx, laryngopharynx.
13. Identify the functions of the pharynx.
Food and air passage, helps in swallowing, airway protection.
14. Describe the process of deglutition (swallowing).
a. Differentiate between voluntary and involuntary phases of deglutition.
Food passes down the mouth to the stomach.
a. Distinguish between voluntary and involuntary stages:
Voluntary: tongue forces bolus into oropharynx.
Involuntary: pharyngeal and esophageal, reflexive movement into esophagus.
15. Describe the anatomy of the esophagus
Tube of muscular constitution joining the pharynx to the stomach; mucosa, submucosa, and
muscularis, and the adventitia.
16. Identify the function(s) of the esophagus.
Pushes food to the stomach through peristalsis.
17. Describe the cause of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).
The poor lower esophagus sphincter permits the stomach acid to enter esophagus.
18. Describe the anatomy of the stomach.
a. Identify the 4 major regions of the stomach.
b. Describe the unique characteristic of the muscularis of the stomach.
c. Define gastric rugae.
J shaped organ with cardia, fundus, body and pylorus; thick muscular wall and rugae.
a. There are 4 great areas: cardia, fundus, body, pylorus.
b. Muscularis: oblique, circular, longitudinal (three layers).
c. Gastric rugae: wrinkle-like stomach expansion folds.
19. Identify the functions of the stomach.
Digestion, both mechanical and chemical, temporary storage, the absorption of some substances
(alcohol, drugs).
20. Identify the gastric glands and cells and the products they secrete.
HCl and intrinsic factor are parietal cells.
Chief cells: pepsinogen.
Mucous cells: mucus.
G cells: gastrin.
21. Describe the mechanical and chemical digestion of the stomach.
Mechanical: blending and mixing food.
Chemical: pepsin breaks proteins, HCl inactivates proteins and enzymes.
22. Identify substances that can be absorbed by the stomach.
Alcohol, water, certain medication (aspirin).
23. Describe how parietal cells produce/secrete HCl (hydrochloric acid).
CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃ (carbonic anhydrase) → H⁺ + HCO₃⁻; H⁺ pumped into lumen via H⁺/K⁺ ATPase;
Cl⁻ follows.
24. Describe the anatomy of the pancreas.
Retroperitoneal gland that has head, body, tail; exocrine (acini) and endocrine (islands of
Langerhans) parts.
25. Identify the functions of the pancreas.
Exocrine secretes: digestive enzymes and bicarbonate.
Endocrine: the secretion of insulin and glucagon.
26. Identify components of pancreatic juice and their functions.
Enzymes: lipase (lipids), amylase (starch), proteases (proteins), nucleases (nucleic acids);
bicarbonate neutralizes acidic chyme.
27. Identify the function of the gallbladder.
Stores and empties bile out of small intestine.
28. Identify the functions of the liver.
Secretion of bile, blood detoxification, glycogen, synthesis of plasma proteins, nutrient
metabolism.
29. Identify the function of bile.
Breaks down fats to digest and absorb lipids.
30. Describe/trace the path of the “biliary tree”.
Common Liver - hepatic ducts - common hepatic duct - cystic duct (gallbladder) - common bile
duct - duodenum.
31. Describe the path of blood flow through the liver.
Hepatic artery + portal vein - liver sinuoids - central vein hepatic vein - inferior vena cava.
32. Describe the anatomy of the small intestine.
a. Describe how the surface areas of the small intestine is increased.
b. Identify the sections of the small intestine.
c. Describe the histology of the small intestine (include information regarding villi,
microvilli, submucosa).
duodenum, jejunum, ileum; mucosa with villi, microvilli.
a. Enlarge surface area: plicae circulares, villi, microvilli.
b. Divisions: duodenum, jejunum, ileum.
c. Histology: mucosa and villi, microvilli, goblet cells; submucosa; muscularis; Peyer patches of
ileum.
33. Identify the functions of the small intestine.
Absorption of nutrients, chemical digestion, propulsion.
34. Define segmentation.
Churning movement increases absorption and digestion.
35. Define peristalsis.
Peristalsis that transports the contents in the GI tract.
36. List/identify the four macromolecular categories and the chemicals/enzymes involved in
their digestion.
a. Lipids
b. Carbohydrates/Polysaccharides/Starches
c. Proteins
d. Nucleic Acids (DNA, RNA)
a. Lipids: lipase, bile (emulsification).
b. Carbohydrates: salivary amylase, pancreatic amylase, brush border enzymes.
c. Proteins: chymotrypsin, peptidases, pepsin, trypsin.
d. Nucleic acids: deoxyribonuclease, RNAse, nucleotidases.
37. Describe how fluid balance is maintained with the digestive system.
Water is exuded through glands, and is soaked up principally in the small and large intestines, by
osmotic gradients aiding absorption.
38. Describe how each macromolecular category is absorbed by the small intestine.
a. Lipids
b. Carbohydrates/Polysaccharides/Starches
c. Proteins
d. Nucleic Acids (DNA, RNA)
a. Lipids: micelles - enterocytes - chylomicron - lymph.
b. Carbohydrates: monosaccharides through facilitated diffusion or cotransport.
c. Proteins: amino acids through active transportation.
d. Nucleic acids: nucleotide through active movement.
39. Describe the anatomy of the large intestine.
Cecum, colon (ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid), rectum, anal canal; haustra, taenia
coli, epiploic appendages.
40. Identify the functions of the large intestine.
Take in water and electrolytes, develop and store feces, host microbiota.
41. Describe mechanical and chemical digestion within the large intestine.
Chemical: some of the carbohydrates are fermented by bacteria and vitamins produced.
42. Identify materials/molecules absorbed by the large intestine.
Water, electrolytes, vitamin (K, B12, biotin), short-chain bacteria-produced fatty acids.
43. Describe the events of the defecation reflex.
Rectum filling - stretch receptors - parasympathetic input - rectum contracts, internal anal sphincter
relaxes; defecation, voluntary relaxation of external sphincter.
44. Describe the events of the phases of digestion.
a. Cephalic phase
b. Gastric phase
c. Intestinal phase
a. Cephalic stage: activated by sight, smell, thought; activates gastric secretion.
b. Gastric phase: there is food in the stomach, the secretion and motility is elevated.
c. Intestinal phase: chyme is introduced into the small intestine; regulates gastric emptying by
hormones.
45. Identify the functions of the following hormones that control digestion:
a. Gastrin
b. Secretin
c. Cholecystokinin (CCK)
a. Gastrin: increases gastric acid secretion and motility.
b. Secretin: secretion of bicarbonate of pancreas stimulated, gastric secretion inhibited.
c. Cholecystokinin (CCK): increases the bile emptying in the gallbladder, secretion of
pancreatic enzymes, and satiety.
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