Chapter 2: Literature Review

Terrorism and the safeguarding of children have emerged as crucial topics in current discussions

surrounding security and human rights, particularly in Nigeria, where the repercussions of

violent extremism continue to transform communities and impact vulnerable populations.

Researchers like Njoku (2019) and Onapajo (2020) have explored how terrorism disrupts social

stability and disrupts the basic rights of children. A significant portion of the existing literature

has concentrated on the North-East, where the Boko Haram insurgency has inflicted severe

damage; however, new patterns of insecurity in other areas, such as Kwara State, have prompted

fresh concerns about the indirect and long-lasting effects of terrorism on children’s safety,

education, and mental health. Reports from UNICEF (2023) and the Global Terrorism Index

(2023) also highlight that the changing landscape of terrorism in Nigeria presents complex

challenges for the protection of children, necessitating renewed academic focus and stronger

policy measures.

2.1 Conceptual Review

The conceptual review offers more insight into the main ideas and terms that makeup this study.

Key concepts such as terrorism, child protection, and human security play a vital role not only in

academic discussions but also in the real-life situations faced by communities impacted by

violence. Different scholars have characterized terrorism through various lenses based on their

viewpoints and areas of expertise. Schmid (2011) suggests that terrorism is the intentional

application of violence by non-state actors aimed at instilling fear and attaining political,

religious, or ideological objectives. In the context of Nigeria, Okoli and Iortyer (2014) describe it

as the organized use of violence and intimidation by extremist groups like Boko Haram to

undermine state authority and disrupt civilian life.

In contrast, child protection involves all initiatives designed to prevent and address abuse,

neglect, exploitation, and violence directed at children (UNICEF, 2023). This concept includes

legal, social, and institutional structures that ensure children's rights to survival, development,

and engagement. The significance of child protection increases in the backdrop of terrorism, as

children are frequently targeted, recruited, or traumatized by acts of violence. Adebayo (2020)

emphasizes that children in conflict zones face heightened vulnerabilities, serving as both

victims of violence and representations of the deterioration of societal morals and security.

Grasping these concepts aids in contextualizing the discourse surrounding terrorism and its

impact on children’s lives in Kwara State. It also underscores the need to perceive terrorism not

solely as a threat to security but also as a social issue with profound human and developmental

consequences.

2.1.1 Terrorism

Terrorism represents one of the most pressing issues within global security and political

discussions. Both scholars and policymakers have struggled to reach a consensus on a single,

universal definition primarily due to the varied motivations, participants, and situations linked to

acts of terrorism. Schmid and Jongman (2005) offer a definition of terrorism as “an anxiety-

inducing method of repeated violent action, carried out by semi-clandestine individuals, groups,

or state actors for personal, criminal, or political reasons, wherein the direct targets of violence

are not the primary objectives.” The United Nations (2018) also characterizes terrorism as

criminal acts aimed at inciting fear among the public, specific groups, or individual persons for

political, religious, or ideological motives.

In Africa, terrorism frequently emerges from structural inequalities, ethnic and religious tensions,

political exclusion, and economic hardship. Researchers like Onapajo (2020) and Okoli (2019)

have pointed out that the roots of terrorism in Nigeria are both local and transnational. For

example, the Boko Haram insurgency originated as a religious movement advocating for Islamic

reform but later transformed into a violent extremist group that opposes Western education and

governance. The group's activities have resulted in widespread devastation, mass displacement,

and significant human rights abuses, particularly affecting women and children (Adebajo, 2021).

Terrorism extends beyond mere physical violence; it represents a calculated effort to instill fear

and undermine public trust in government institutions. (Oche, 2020) says that terrorist

organizations intentionally employ violence to contest state authority and gain both

psychological and political advantage. Their actions are designed to coerce governments into

making policy changes or to destabilize societies for ideological reasons. The Global Terrorism

Index (GTI, 2023) places Nigeria among the ten countries most impacted by terrorism

worldwide, highlighting that assaults have not only ravaged the North-East but are gradually

extending to other areas, including North-Central states like Kwara, which are beginning to

experience the ramifications of insecurity.

The effects of terrorism are multi-faceted involving economic, political, psychological, and

social. In addition to loss of life and material destruction, terrorism disrupts education,

healthcare, and fundamental governance. It forces families to flee, leaving behind orphaned and

vulnerable children. Furthermore, it deteriorates trust within communities, fostering cycles of

suspicion and fear.

2.1.2 Child Protection

Child protection plays an important role in human development and social welfare, particularly

in societies impacted by conflict where children are at increased risk of violence, exploitation,

and neglect. The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF, 2023) characterizes child protection

as “the prevention and response to violence, exploitation, abuse, and neglect of children.” This

description highlights two aspects: prevention (aimed at minimizing risk factors and enhancing

resilience) and response (which ensures that children who suffer harm receive the necessary care,

justice, and rehabilitation.) Within the framework of terrorism and insecurity, child protection

emerges as an urgent humanitarian and ethical obligation.

On a global scale, the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC, 1989) serves as the key legal

foundation for protecting children. Article 19 of the CRC mandates that State Parties implement

all necessary measures (legislative, administrative, social, and educational) to shield children

from any form of physical or mental harm, abuse, neglect, or exploitation. Nigeria ratified this

Convention in 1991 and incorporated it into national law with the Child Rights Act (CRA, 2003),

which outlines a framework for protecting children's rights in all sectors. Nonetheless, numerous

Nigerian children, particularly those in areas affected by conflict, continue to face risks of abuse

and exploitation. As reported by Human Rights Watch (2020), thousands of children in Nigeria

have fallen victim to kidnapping, forced recruitment, and sexual violence due to terrorism and

armed conflict, especially in the North-East and Middle-Belt regions.

Child protection also involves tackling the structural and systemic factors that put children at

risk. As noted by Save the Children (2021), issues like poverty, displacement, and ineffective law
enforcement often heighten children's vulnerability in times of crisis. In Kwara State and various

regions of Nigeria, insecurity and terrorism can interrupt education, split families apart, and

subject children to early labor or exploitation. The National Bureau of Statistics (NBS, 2022)

indicated that children who have been displaced or orphaned due to violent conflicts struggle to

access education and health services, perpetuating a cycle of deprivation.

Moreover, safeguarding children extends beyond just legal systems; it also includes

psychological support and the engagement of communities. Wessells (2015) points out that

effective systems for child protection should be rooted in community-based approaches that are

compatible with local customs and beliefs. This method is especially pertinent in regions such as

Ilorin and other areas within Kwara State, where traditional and religious organizations are

integral to the well-being of children. Afolabi and Ojo (2020) likewise contend that child

protection policies in Nigeria must be tailored to the specific context, combining both formal

governmental frameworks and informal community practices to create a significant impact.

The link between terrorism and child protection illustrates how conflict alters the experience of

childhood. In areas affected by terrorism, children can be both victims of and participants in acts

of violence. UNICEF (2022) highlights that children who are recruited by armed groups endure

long-lasting psychological trauma and stigma, complicating their reintegration. Girls, in

particular, encounter unique vulnerabilities related to their gender, such as being subjected to

forced marriages and sexual enslavement. The inability to effectively safeguard and rehabilitate

these children can reinforce cycles of violence and instability, threatening social cohesion and

developmental progress.

Ultimately, child protection reflects the resilience of society and the security of individuals. It

requires organized efforts from governmental bodies, civil organizations, and global partners. As
noted by Okon and Ekpe (2021), protecting children during periods of insecurity is not just a

moral duty but also a crucial component of building national peace. In Kwara State, where there

have been recent security issues causing worry about civilian safety, it is essential to enhance

child protection measures, through education, awareness, and community policing, to avert long-

lasting psychological and developmental damage.

2.1.3 Human Security

The idea of human security emerged in the early 1990s as a shift from the traditional focus on

state-centered security to one that emphasizes the protection and well-being of individuals. The

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 1994) popularized the term in its Human

Development Report, characterizing human security as “freedom from fear and freedom from

want.” This perspective expands the definition of security to encompass safeguarding individuals

from long-term threats such as hunger, illness, and oppression, as well as immediate disruptions

in their daily lives, whether at home, in their communities, or at work. In contrast to conventional

security, which is concerned with protecting territorial borders, human security prioritizes the

safeguarding of people's rights, dignity, and means of livelihood.

As noted by Tadjbakhsh and Chenoy (2007), human security merges political, economic, and

social aspects of security to tackle both direct and systemic forms of violence. They contend that

while military defense may secure territorial boundaries, it does not inherently ensure the safety

of individuals, particularly in societies affected by poverty, inequality, and ineffective

governance. In this context, terrorism represents a significant threat to human security because it

directly undermines the essential freedoms that enable people to live with dignity and peace.

When communities face a constant threat of violence, as occurs in several Nigerian states,
including parts of Kwara, individuals suffer not only from physical insecurity but also from

psychological distress and economic instability.

The Commission on Human Security (2003) elaborated on this concept by identifying seven

essential components of human security: economic, food, health, environmental, personal,

community, and political security. Each component is interlinked, meaning that a threat to one

can pose risks to others. For example, terrorism and armed conflict can devastate infrastructure,

restrict healthcare access, and displace families, all of which decrease human security. Paris

(2001) observes that human security embodies a “people-centered, multi-sectoral approach” that

acknowledges that security threats often stem from internal social and economic challenges

rather than external military conflicts.

In Nigeria, the issue of human security has attracted more focus as the nation seeks to balance

military defense with social welfare initiatives. Akinyetun (2022) argues that Nigeria’s heavy

reliance on military solutions to terrorism often neglects the underlying human insecurities that

enable extremism to flourish, such as high unemployment, poor governance, and inadequate

education. The Global Terrorism Index (2024) indicates that areas characterized by elevated

poverty levels and weak institutions frequently experience prolonged cycles of violence, as

citizens lose faith in the state’s ability to safeguard them. This situation is especially apparent in

communities where children and women are disproportionately affected by violence,

displacement, and social breakdown.

Human security also emphasizes the significance of emotional and social well-being. Gasper

(2013) asserts that security should encompass more than just the absence of conflict, including

the protection of human dignity, agency, and identity. Terrorism undermines these aspects by

creating fear and disrupting the feeling of belonging within communities. In regions like Kwara
State, where recent violent events have disturbed social cohesion, addressing human security

means ensuring that citizens can live free from the threat of violence, access essential social

services, and engage in governance without facing discrimination or repression.

Furthermore, United Nations General Assembly Resolution 66/290 (2012) reaffirmed that human

security involves safeguarding individuals from significant and widespread threats while

enabling them to act on their own behalf. This dual strategy, protection and empowerment ,

underscores that security is not just about government intervention but about fostering

community resilience and capacity to prevent and address threats. Consequently, human security

policies should integrate child protection, education, healthcare, and economic empowerment as

vital elements of peacebuilding.

Ultimately, the significance of human security in this analysis is its focus on the individual as the

primary subject of protection. It offers a framework for comprehending how terrorism in Kwara

State impacts not only governmental stability but also the daily lives of citizens, especially

children, who are the most vulnerable group in society. As Ogundiya (2010) indicates, achieving

sustainable peace and security in Nigeria necessitates tackling the underlying causes of human

insecurity, such as poverty, social injustice, and ineffective governance. Thus, enhancing human

security in the context of terrorism is essential for establishing a stable and equitable society.

2.1.4 Violence and Conflict.

Violence and conflict continue to influence the global and national conversations surrounding

peace, development, and human security, especially in Africa where social inequalities and

governance issues remain prominent. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2021) defines

violence as "the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself,
another person, or a group or community that either results in or has a high likelihood of leading

to injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation." This definition

encompasses both direct physical harm and the structural violence woven into social systems.

Conflict is generally perceived as a scenario in which two or more parties believe their goals,

needs, or interests are incompatible (Deutsch, Coleman & Marcus, 2019). When conflicts are

inadequately handled or disregarded, they can escalate into violence, resulting in profound

human, social, and economic repercussions.

In today’s Nigeria, the nature of violence and conflict has shifted due to terrorism, ethnic strife,

clashes between farmers and herders, and increasing instances of banditry. The Global Terrorism

Index (Institute for Economics and Peace, 2024) states that Nigeria remains among the ten

countries most affected by terrorism, with the center of violence gradually moving from the

North-East to other areas, including the North-Central and North-West regions. The report

highlights that localized conflicts are increasingly fueled by the struggle for resources, climate-

related pressures, and ineffective institutional responses. Additionally, Akinyetun (2022) points

out that unresolved grievances, poverty, and unemployment have contributed to ongoing violent

conflicts throughout Nigeria, turning previously peaceful communities into centers of insecurity.

From a sociological standpoint, violence is often associated with structural and cultural factors.

Galtung’s violence typology, though created earlier, continues to hold relevance and has been

revisited by recent scholars like Höglund and Söderberg Kovacs (2020), who argue that

structural inequality and political exclusion persist in perpetuating cycles of violent conflict.

They contend that societies with weak rule of law and social injustice are more susceptible to

violence, as institutional failures diminish citizens’ trust in governance. In Nigeria, widespread

poverty and marginalization act as both catalysts and consequences of violent conflict, forming a

vicious cycle that impedes human development and peace.

The impacts of violence on children and communities are particularly profound. UNICEF (2022)

reports that more than 1.4 million Nigerian children have been displaced due to insurgency and

communal violence, many of whom have lost their access to education and healthcare. Being

exposed to violence not only threatens children’s physical safety but also results in lasting

psychological trauma. Betancourt and Khan (2020) highlight that prolonged exposure to conflict-

laden environments heightens the chances of developing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD),

depression, and behavioral issues among children. These effects are intensified in regions like

Kwara State, where episodes of violent confrontations, kidnappings, and insecurity have

disrupted social life and strained local peace initiatives.

The economic and developmental consequences of violence are similarly substantial. Findings

from the World Bank (2023) indicate that conflict hampers economic productivity, deters

investment, and raises poverty levels. Nigeria’s internal conflicts, encompassing terrorism and

communal violence, are estimated to result in economic losses surpassing $9 billion annually due

to displacement, property damage, and disrupted commerce. In rural areas, such as parts of

Kwara where livelihoods rely on agriculture and informal markets, violent events instill fear that

restricts movement and obstructs community development.

Efforts to tackle violence and conflict have increasingly concentrated on peacebuilding, dialogue,

and inclusive governance. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 2022)

emphasizes that addressing violence necessitates confronting underlying issues like exclusion,

inequality, and ineffective justice systems. It promotes a “human-centered security” approach,

which emphasizes community involvement and development that is sensitive to conflicts. This
perspective aligns with the views of Albert and Akinwale (2019), who assert that lasting peace in

Nigeria relies on the empowerment of local stakeholders, including traditional leaders, women,

and youth, to mediate disputes and foster trust within communities.

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 16 (UN, 2015) supports this notion by

advocating for peaceful and inclusive societies, accessibility to justice, and efficient institutions.

Ongoing violence hinders these goals by redirecting resources from development initiatives to

security measures, undermining public institutions, and diminishing citizens' trust in governance.

The OECD (2021) highlights that fragile and conflict-affected nations frequently allocate more

funds to security and post-conflict recovery than to education or healthcare, thereby perpetuating

underdevelopment.

In Kwara State, although large-scale terrorism is less significant than in the North-East, the

region still faces violence-related issues such as inter-communal conflicts, cult-related

homicides, and insecurity along major roadways. Recent violent occurrences and tragedies

involving children and families underscore the urgent necessity for proactive strategies for peace

and protection. Combating violence in these regions necessitates a blend of preventive initiatives,

such as education, economic empowerment, and social inclusion, as well as responsive measures

that guarantee justice, rehabilitation, and reintegration for those affected

2.1.5 Sustainable Development.

Sustainable development has emerged as an important concept of the twenty-first century,

shaping both global and national initiatives aimed at pursuing economic growth that is inclusive

and environmentally sustainable. The United Nations (2015) describes sustainable development

as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.” This concept highlights the interconnectedness between

economic advancement, social equity, and environmental conservation. It transcends mere

economic progress to focus on achieving lasting human well-being, peace, and stability.

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 2022) states that sustainable development

involves tackling “the root causes of poverty, inequality, and exclusion” while fostering

institutions that support justice and security. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,

adopted by all UN Member States in 2015, presents a thorough framework of 17 Sustainable

Development Goals (SDGs). Among these, Goal 16, promoting peaceful and inclusive societies,

and Goal 4, ensuring quality education, are especially pertinent regarding terrorism and child

protection in Nigeria. Terrorism disrupts both by damaging infrastructure, displacing families,

and denying children access to education and safety.

The World Bank (2023) claims that sustainable development cannot flourish in settings marked

by violence and insecurity. Ongoing conflicts undermine governance capabilities, weaken

institutions, and redirect resources away from productive investments. In Nigeria, years of

insurgency and instability have reversed developmental progress and intensified poverty levels.

According to the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS, 2022), over 63% of Nigerians live in

multidimensional poverty, a situation exacerbated by insecurity and limited access to education

and healthcare. This scenario highlights the necessity to incorporate peacebuilding and human

security into national development strategies.

From a socio-economic angle, sustainable development highlights the importance of equity and

inclusion. Sachs (2020) suggests that sustainable progress hinges on “leaving no one behind,”

particularly for vulnerable populations such as children, women, and displaced individuals. In

areas affected by terrorism, including Kwara State and other regions of Nigeria, sustainable
development involves reconstructing schools, restoring livelihoods, and offering psychosocial

support to victims of violence. Without addressing these human needs, development remains

precarious and unsustainable. In a similar vein, Akinyemi and Adeyemi (2021) argue that

sustainable development in Nigeria must extend beyond mere economic growth to encompass

social justice, efficient governance, and the safeguarding of human rights.

The environmental aspect of sustainable development is also crucial in analyzing conflict and

security issues. Climate-related pressures, land degradation, and competition for natural

resources are recognized as significant conflict triggers in Nigeria and the Sahel region (UNEP,

2021). The African Development Bank (AfDB, 2023) cautions that environmental degradation

and poor resource management heighten vulnerability to violence, especially in rural areas

reliant on agriculture. Thus, achieving sustainable peace and development necessitates an

equilibrium between human needs and environmental stewardship through the use of renewable

energy, sustainable agriculture, and resource management.

Education and child protection are fundamental to sustainable development. The UNESCO

Global Education Monitoring Report (2023) underscores that quality education promotes peace,

tolerance, and resilience, all vital for breaking cycles of violence. In places like Kwara, where

insecurity and poverty disrupt education, guaranteeing access to schooling for all children is key

to attaining long-term stability and development. As UNICEF (2022) points out, each year of

education lost due to violence or displacement reduces a child's future earning potential and

undermines community development opportunities.

Governance is a crucial foundation for sustainable development. Both the OECD (2021) and the

United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA, 2020) highlight that for sustainable

outcomes, it is vital to ensure transparency, accountability, and participation in governance.

Issues such as corruption, ineffective institutions, and inadequate citizen involvement obstruct

successful policy execution. In Nigeria, advancing sustainable development necessitates

overhauling governance frameworks to guarantee fair resource distribution and ensure that

marginalized groups, including those impacted by terrorism, are not overlooked.

Ultimately, sustainable development encompasses both a target and a journey. It aims to

harmonize economic growth, social welfare, and environmental sustainability to build resilient

communities. In the context of Kwara State, which has recently experienced insecurity and social

upheaval affecting livelihoods and child well-being, sustainability means creating conditions

where citizens can live without fear, have access to education and healthcare, and actively

participate in the economy. As Leal Filho et al. (2023) explain, realizing sustainability in

developing nations requires adapting global objectives to local contexts, embedding these goals

into community-level strategies and actions that are pertinent to local circumstances.

2.2 Theoretical Review.

2.2.1 Human Security Theory.

The Human Security Theory arose as a reaction to the drawbacks of traditional security concepts

that centered primarily on the state, focusing mainly on military defense and territorial integrity

instead of the safety and well-being of individual citizens. This theory was officially introduced

by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in the influential 1994 Human

Development Report, under the guidance of Dr. Mahbub ul Haq and Nobel Prize winner Amartya

Sen. Developed in the context of the post-Cold War era, the theory aimed to shift global security

perspectives toward individuals, stressing that genuine security cannot prevail when individuals

are tormented by fear, poverty, or deprivation (UNDP, 1994).

The aim of introducing the Human Security Theory was to expand the concept of security to

include all types of threats that destroys human existence and dignity, such as poverty, illness,

environmental degradation, terrorism, and social inequality (UNDP, 2022). It posits that the

principles of freedom from fear, freedom from want, and the ability to live with dignity are

essential for achieving enduring peace. Over time, this theory has been refined and adapted to

address various global challenges, including violent extremism and humanitarian emergencies,

which makes it particularly significant in relation to current issues like terrorism in Nigeria (IEP,

2024; UNDP, 2022).

Human security is based on the idea that national security holds little value without ensuring

human safety. As noted by Paris (2001) and later interpretations like Newman (2016), achieving

security cannot rely solely on military power because contemporary threats are complex and

encompass economic, social, political, and environmental aspects. The United Nations Trust

Fund for Human Security (UNTFHS, 2021) highlights that safeguarding individuals from

persistent dangers like hunger, illness, and oppression, as well as protecting them from abrupt

disruptions in their everyday lives, is vital for attaining lasting peace and development.

The seven essential elements of the theory; economic, food, health, environmental, personal,

community, and political security are interconnected. When one aspect fails, it impacts the

others, leading to a cycle of vulnerability. In Nigeria, and specifically in Kwara State, terrorism

and violent crime jeopardize nearly all seven elements. Economic stability is threatened as

attacks disrupt livelihoods and discourage investment. Food security is adversely affected when

farmers flee their fields due to fears of being attacked. Health and environmental security

diminish as displaced families gather in inadequate living conditions. Most importantly, personal
and community security decline when children are kidnapped, face violence, or are traumatized

by witnessing harm to their relatives (UNICEF, 2023; Premium Times, 2024).

The Global Terrorism Index (IEP, 2024) ranks Nigeria among the countries most affected by

terrorism worldwide, underscoring how issues such as insurgency, banditry, and kidnappings

have destabilized communities, particularly in the North-Central region, where Kwara State is

located. This theory connects these occurrences to underlying structural insecurities, including

poverty, marginalization, and ineffective governance, which cultivate an environment conducive

to violent extremism (Afolabi, 2021; Olayinka, 2020). In essence, the terrorism experienced in

Nigeria is both a consequence and a catalyst of human insecurity.

From the standpoint of child protection, Human Security Theory is essential as it broadens the

definition of security to encompass the survival, growth, and dignity of children. UNICEF (2023)

states that children exposed to terrorism endure multiple insecurities at once, including loss of

education, psychological distress, forced displacement, and, in some cases, coerced enlistment

into armed factions. Betancourt and Khan (2021) highlight that such exposure to violence can

lead to enduring mental health issues, such as depression and post-traumatic stress disorder

(PTSD), which often contribute to ongoing cycles of violence and poverty. Viewing these

experiences through a human security framework ensures they are recognized not as isolated

incidents but as vital components of national insecurity that necessitate policy intervention.

In Kwara State, while large-scale terrorism is less common than in Borno or Yobe, rising

instances of armed violence and kidnappings in areas such as Ekiti, Ifelodun, and Baruten local

governments indicate increasing insecurity. The human security framework encourages

policymakers to go beyond reactive law enforcement and instead tackle the underlying issues:

unemployment, poverty, fragile community safety nets, and insufficient psychosocial support for
victims. It advocates for a child-focused approach to security, wherein government and

community systems prioritize continuing education, trauma assistance, and livelihood support for

affected families (UNDP, 2022; UNICEF, 2023).

2.2.2 Social-Ecological Model Theory.

The Social-Ecological Model, which originates from Urie Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems

theory (1979), provides an in-depth framework for comprehending how various levels of

influence interact to mold individual behavior, vulnerability, and overall well-being. In recent

years, particularly in conflict-affected environments marked by violence, displacement, and

trauma, this model has garnered renewed interest in child protection research. It emphasizes that

children are not isolated; instead, their experiences and risks are shaped by their relationships

with family, community, and society at large. Recent reports from the World Health Organization

(2016) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (2019, 2021) have underscored the importance of

this model in crafting interventions to prevent violence against children, suggesting that effective

child protection should tackle risks across various levels rather than concentrating only on the

individual child.

The core idea of the Social-Ecological Model is that the experiences of harm and protection arise

from complex interactions among factors across four general levels: the individual, family or

interpersonal relationships, the community, and the broader societal context. Betancourt and

Khan (2021) suggest that the psychosocial health of children in areas affected by conflict is

influenced not only by their experiences of violence but also by the resilience demonstrated by

their families, the support available within their communities, and the inclusiveness of national

policies. In other words, a child's susceptibility increases significantly when these protective

mechanisms fail simultaneously, as has been seen in the conflict-affected regions of Nigeria.
At the individual child level, the model emphasizes the significant effects of traumatic

experiences such as observing violence, losing guardians, or experiencing displacement. These

situations frequently result in conditions like post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression,

or behavioral problems. In Kwara State, recent violent events, including the reported attack

linked to Al-Qaeda in October 2025 (Reuters, 2025), the Oke-Ode murders (Daily Trust, 2025),

and the Patigi kidnappings (TVC News, 2025), have caused many children to become orphaned,

displaced, or mentally affected. In these circumstances, the Social-Ecological Model underscores

the urgent need for psychosocial support, mental health treatment, and the reconstruction of safe

spaces where children can return to their education and social interactions. Research from the

World Health Organization’s “INSPIRE” strategy (2016) and UNICEF’s child protection

initiatives (2019) indicates that early intervention in schools and health facilities can greatly

mitigate the long-lasting effects of trauma on children.

At the interpersonal level, the model highlights the importance of family and close relationships.

Families act as the primary support system for children, yet they can also pose risks when

challenges such as economic struggles, displacement, or loss affect family dynamics. Research

conducted in Nigeria by UNICEF (2021) and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

(2024) has indicated that families impacted by violence often see disruptions in parental care and

protection, which raises the risk of neglect, exploitation, and child labor for children. In light of

the recent violence in Kwara, numerous families have been compelled to move from rural areas

to Ilorin and other comparatively safer towns. This forced relocation places additional burdens

on host families and strains community resources. The World Bank (2021) suggests that adaptive

social protection initiatives offering cash support and psychosocial services to families impacted
by conflict can help stabilize households, restore caregiving abilities, and mitigate further harm

to children.

The community level of the Social-Ecological Model examines the wider social contexts where

children engage outside the home, encompassing schools, religious institutions, and local

organizations. In areas like Oke-Ode and Patigi, where violence has recently taken place, schools

have temporarily shut down, and social gatherings have decreased due to concerns about

potential subsequent attacks. The suspension of schooling not only disrupts learning but also

removes a significant protective environment where teachers and peers frequently act as informal

monitors of children's well-being. According to UNICEF Nigeria (2021), in circumstances where

schools remain closed for prolonged periods, children are more susceptible to exploitation,

forced labor, or early marriages. Reviving education in these contexts demands collaborative

efforts from local leaders, educators, security personnel, and humanitarian organizations.

Initiatives such as temporary learning centers, community protection committees, and child-

friendly spaces have proven effective in restoring a sense of normality and safety (UNICEF,

2019; WHO, 2016).

At the societal level, the Social-Ecological Model looks at the prevailing political, cultural, and

economic frameworks that affect community stability and the welfare of children. Elements like

weak governance, insufficient social welfare systems, gender disparities, and ongoing poverty

create conditions conducive to violence and violations of child rights. The recent incidents in

Kwara underscore the increasing presence of transnational extremist groups that exploit social

and economic grievances. These circumstances necessitate a coordinated approach among local

and national governments, civil society, and international stakeholders. Reports from the United

Nations Development Programme (2022) and the World Bank (2021) stress the importance of
enhancing state-level institutions tasked with social welfare, education, and community safety to

maintain peace and safeguard vulnerable children. In Kwara State, integrating child protection

measures into emergency response plans and ensuring that affected families receive both

financial and psychosocial support will be vital to avert the long-term marginalization of

impacted children.

The Social-Ecological Model is especially pertinent to the current situation in Kwara State, as it

highlights the interconnections between the causes and consequences of violence. The recent

assaults have not only threatened lives but have also undermined social trust, economic stability,

and educational progress. Each layer of the model illustrates the ripple effects of violence, from

the individual trauma experienced by affected children to the disintegration of family structures,

the dysfunction of community institutions, and the revelation of systemic vulnerabilities in state

protection systems. Utilizing this model in Kwara encourages policymakers and researchers to

formulate responses that are both immediate and holistic. Mental health support for children

should be accompanied by assistance for family livelihoods, initiatives for reopening schools,

and long-term investments in social welfare and security reform.

In essence, the Social-Ecological Model provides an analytical framework that enables scholars

and practitioners to perceive terrorism not merely as a security issue but as a social phenomenon

that disrupts entire protective ecosystems surrounding children. By placing the recent incidents

in Kwara within this broader context, the model aids in pinpointing where interventions are

necessary to rebuild resilience and reestablish normalcy. Its application thus serves as both a

diagnostic tool for understanding the layers of vulnerability in Kwara’s conflict-affected

communities and a guide for sustainable child protection programming that aligns with global

best practices and Nigeria’s national child protection framework.

2.2.3 Social Protection Framework.

The Social Protection Framework did not originate from a single person; instead, it developed as

a multidisciplinary policy and theoretical concept influenced by the contributions of economists,

sociologists, and global development organizations. Its foundational concepts can be traced back

to Amartya Sen’s capability approach (Sen, 1999), which argued that poverty is not just about

insufficient income but also about the lack of essential capabilities required for human thriving.

This human-centric perspective on welfare significantly impacted subsequent social policy

models, culminating in the establishment of the contemporary Social Protection Framework

championed by organizations like the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the World

Bank in the early 2000s.

The ILO’s Social Protection Floors Recommendation No. 202 (2012) institutionalized the

principle that all individuals, regardless of their economic circumstances, should have access to

basic income security and essential services (ILO, 2012). Concurrently, the World Bank

proposed a complementary framework known as “Social Risk Management (SRM),” which

conceptualized social protection as a tool to assist households in managing and reducing risks

that jeopardize their welfare (Holzmann & Jørgensen, 2001). Over time, researchers like

Devereux and Sabates-Wheeler (2004; 2021) further developed these ideas, introducing an

“adaptive social protection” model that combines social assistance with climate, conflict, and

security strategies to foster resilience in vulnerable contexts.

Overall, the Social Protection Framework was collectively established through years of

international development discussions, informed by the works of Sen (1999), Holzmann and

Jørgensen (2001), Devereux and Sabates-Wheeler (2004; 2021), alongside the policies of the

ILO and the World Bank. It has evolved into a pivotal paradigm for understanding how social
and economic systems can safeguard at-risk populations, particularly children, from

multidimensional threats such as poverty, violence, and instability.

In terms of child protection, the framework suggests that when governments ensure consistent

access to income, healthcare, education, and social services, children face a reduced risk of

exploitation, neglect, and child labor (UNICEF, 2019). This directly connects to the United

Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC, 1989), which mandates that governments

provide social security and assistance for children (Article 26). Research conducted after 2015

has highlighted that in areas affected by conflict, social protection measures such as cash

transfers, support for livelihoods, and school feeding initiatives not only serve as welfare actions

but also act as resilience-building tools that prevent children from becoming involved in cycles

of violence (UNICEF, 2023; World Bank, 2021).

In Nigeria, the application of the framework became more evident following the launch of the

National Social Protection Policy (NSPP) in 2017, aimed at integrating existing programs into a

unified framework. This effort was strengthened by the National Social Investment Programmes

(NSIPs), which include N-Power, the Conditional Cash Transfer (CCT), and the Home-Grown

School Feeding Programme (HGSFP). The NSPP was created in partnership with the ILO and

UNICEF to implement the principles of the global framework within the Nigerian socio-

economic environment (Federal Government of Nigeria, 2022). Nonetheless, the execution of

these policies is inconsistent due to issues with funding, corruption, and insecurity in various

states.

The recent acts of terrorism in Kwara State, which include the Oke-Ode killings, the abductions

in Patigi, and the JNIM-linked assaults that occurred in October 2025, highlight the pressing

need for a flexible social protection system. Numerous households impacted by these events lost
their sources of income, with many children left displaced, orphaned, or compelled to leave

school. In such circumstances, the lack of effective social protection increases the vulnerability

of children. This framework serves both as a diagnostic and prescriptive tool: diagnostically, it

sheds light on why families in vulnerable situations become more susceptible to exploitation

following crises; prescriptively, it details how social safety nets and welfare systems can protect

children from enduring harm (UNDP, 2022; UNICEF, 2023).

In the context of Kwara, it is vital that interventions extend beyond short-term assistance. Social

protection must be responsive to shocks, integrating emergency cash transfers, programs for re-

enrolling children in school, and providing psychosocial support to facilitate the reintegration of

traumatized children. For example, UNICEF’s Shock-Responsive Social Protection (SRSP)

approach, which was piloted in northern Nigeria from 2019 to 2022, proved that the combination

of humanitarian efforts with existing welfare initiatives helped sustain child nutrition and

education amid displacements caused by Boko Haram (UNICEF, 2021). These types of

initiatives could be replicated in Kwara to assist communities affected by terrorism, particularly

in Ifelodun and Patigi local government areas.

Moreover, the Social Protection Framework emphasizes the crucial connection between

economic stability and national security. In situations where the government fails to sufficiently

support vulnerable populations, extremist factions frequently take advantage of these

deficiencies by providing financial rewards or protection to draw in recruits (UNODC, 2024).

This trend has been noted throughout West Africa, where armed groups exploit poverty and state

neglect to solidify their power. By enhancing social protection in Kwara, the government can

effectively address both humanitarian and security aspects of terrorism.

Theoretically, the framework is closely related to the previously discussed Social-Ecological

Model, as both emphasize the need for multi-layered strategies in child protection. While the

ecological model outlines the interplay of risk factors at the individual, family, and community

levels, the Social Protection Framework presents a policy structure designed to tackle those risks

through established welfare programs. This integration is crucial for fostering resilience in post-

conflict societies and breaking cycles of vulnerability.

In summary, the Social Protection Framework, as articulated by thinkers like Sen (1999),

Holzmann and Jørgensen (2001), and Devereux & Sabates-Wheeler (2004; 2021), offers a

foundational theory linking welfare policies to security and human rights outcomes. Its

significance in addressing the terrorism crisis in Kwara State lies in its assertion that child

protection is inextricably linked to economic and social support systems. Consequently, a robust,

inclusive, and adaptable social protection system is vital for protecting children from the lasting

effects of insecurity.

2.3 Empirical Review

The empirical review emphasizes documented evidence and previous research that shed light on

the effects of terrorism on children, paying special attention to both global and local contexts. It

explores how children are directly and indirectly affected by violent acts, such as abduction,

forced recruitment, attacks on educational institutions, psychological trauma, and the loss of

fundamental rights. The review utilizes international reports, regional studies from Africa,

national data from Nigeria, and specific incidents from Kwara State to pinpoint common patterns

and trends in child vulnerability. Empirical data illustrates the various ways in which terrorism

compromises child protection, influencing education, health, social development, and overall

well-being.
Additionally, this review examines documented interventions and protective strategies that have

been implemented to alleviate the adverse effects of terrorism on children. For example, research

highlights rehabilitation programs, safe shelters for affected children, and community-based

protection initiatives. By analyzing these empirical sources, the study can evaluate the

effectiveness of existing strategies while revealing persistent gaps in safeguarding children in

areas affected by violence. Consequently, the empirical review provides a basis for

comprehending the real-world consequences of terrorism, guiding both the research design and

policy suggestions for improving child protection in Kwara State.

2.3.1 International Context.

The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) published a press release on June 5, 2023,

revealing that over 300,000 serious violations against children in conflict have been verified

globally over the past 18 years. Between 2005 and 2022, the United Nations confirmed nearly

315,000 serious violations affecting children in more than 30 conflict zones worldwide: more

than 120,000 children have been killed or injured, at least 105,000 children have been recruited

or utilized in armed forces/groups, over 32,500 have been abducted, more than 16,000 have

experienced sexual violence, over 16,000 instances of attacks on schools and hospitals have

occurred, and more than 22,000 cases of denied humanitarian access have been reported. The

extensive nature of this information makes the source essential for any research concerning

children in conflict. It shows that children are not merely incidental victims, but rather become

increasingly central to violence, insurgency, and terrorism during wartime. For this project

focused on terrorism and child protection in the context of Kwara State in Nigeria, this source

provides crucial insight into the global scale of the issue. It suggests that localized events need to

be understood within a context where children are regularly subjected to serious violations on a
global scale. A drawback of this release is its aggregate nature, presenting worldwide data

without any sub-national detail.

United Nations Office of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict. (2024, June

13). UN highlights ‘alarming’ increase in violations against children in conflict during 2023.

United Nations. This UN announcement disclose the annual report for 2023 on children and

armed conflict: a total of 32,990 serious violations were confirmed against 22,557 children

across 26 conflict zones, the highest annual figure recorded to date. The most significant

category was killing and maiming, with 11,649 children affected, representing a 35% rise

compared to the previous year. Abductions accounted for 4,356 incidents; the recruitment and

use of children reached 8,655; and attacks on schools and hospitals exceeded 1,650.

This source is extremely important as it provides up-to-date and comprehensive information

indicating a deterioration in the protection of children in conflict, involving insurgent groups,

extremist elements, and government forces. The drawback is that the data are global and

aggregated.

The United Nations (2025) released a summary of the 2024 report titled "Children and Armed

Conflict: Annual Report 2024" (A/79/878-S/2025/247). This summary indicates that 41,370

serious violations against children were confirmed, marking the highest figure since monitoring

began nearly three decades ago. It underscores that warfare tactics increasingly target children

both directly and indirectly: through the use of explosive weapons in populated regions, assaults

on schools and hospitals, and the recruitment and sexual exploitation of minors. This document

is particularly significant for this research as it shows that children impacted by terrorism or

violent conflict are not merely collateral damage but are increasingly seen as direct targets. For

an examination of child protection in environments affected by terrorism, it stresses the necessity

for protection systems to consider both direct violence and the assault on infrastructures and

institutions (such as schools and health facilities) that violate children’s rights. For example, the

report highlights a 44% increase in attacks on schools in 2024. This is highly pertinent to a study

centered on the disruption of education in regards to child protection. A limitation is that it lacks

detailed data by country or state, so transitioning from global to regional and then to local

context will be necessary.

United Nations (2025). A significant increase of 44% in attacks on schools has been reported

over the past year. United Nations Office at Geneva, 9 September 2025. This United Nations

news article states that in conflict zones, incidents of violence targeting school-age children

exceeded 41,000 cases in 2024. Notable countries affected include Israel, DRC, Somalia,

Nigeria, and Haiti. This source is particularly pertinent for understanding child protection in

areas impacted by terrorism, as it establishes a clear connection between the targeting of

educational facilities and the heightened vulnerability of children. For this research centering

Kwara State, where rural educational institutions might face threats from armed attacks or

banditry, this information delivers global evidence that reinforces the idea that schooling

environments cannot be taken for granted as secure. Furthermore, the mention of Nigeria as one

of the nations with high rates of violations suggests that these worldwide statistics are not mere

abstractions, they likely represent real challenges at the national level. Like other global reports,

one limitation is the absence of a breakdown at the state level, but it offers compelling metrics

and justification for examining local schooling risks.

Save the Children International. (2025, June 20). Report reveals a 50% rise in sexual violence

against children in conflict zones over five years, reaching record levels. This analysis utilizes

the 2024 UN data to underline that instances of sexual violence against children in conflict
regions surged by 35% in 2024 and have increased by 50% over the last five years. The countries

with the highest reported cases include Nigeria (419 confirmed incidents), the DRC, and

Somalia. The report stresses that the actual number of cases is likely higher due to factors like

stigma, restricted access, and the conditions arising from conflict.

For this research, this source expands the definition of child protection to encompass not only

physical abuse and disruptions in education but also sexual violence, a situation that is often less

apparent yet incredibly damaging. In situations characterized by terrorism and armed conflict,

children may be kidnapped, subjected to sexual exploitation, or forced into marriage or to

become child soldiers. This source can be employed to support the necessity of investigating

sexual violence, forced recruitment, or the exploitation of children in terrorism-affected areas of

Kwara State. A drawback is the lack of state-specific information and the possibility of under-

reporting.

2.3.2 African Context.

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). (2022, June 28). New UNICEF analysis reveals

alarming extent of serious violations against children in conflict. UNICEF. This analysis reports

more than 67,000 confirmed serious violations against children in West and Central Africa since

2005, accounting for approximately one-quarter of all confirmed violations worldwide. The

violations include killing, maiming, abduction, recruitment or use of children by armed groups,

sexual violence, attacks on educational institutions and medical facilities, and restrictions on

humanitarian access. The report emphasizes a 40% rise in confirmed violations in the Central

Sahel region during the first quarter of 2022 compared to the last quarter. The data reflects

various impacts on children, including direct physical injuries and interruptions to education and

health services. While the report lacks details at the country level, it offers a regional perspective
to comprehend threats to child protection, placing the dynamics of conflict in Africa within a

larger continental context.

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). (2024, May 29). UNICEF highlights increase in

violence against children in Africa’s central Sahel. United Nations. This announcement reveals a

70% rise in confirmed instances of violence targeting children in the central Sahel throughout

late 2023, with Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger witnessing a 130% uptick in killings, maimings,

kidnappings, and the recruitment/use of children. The report underscores assaults on rural

communities, educational institutions, and healthcare facilities, along with the displacement of

children. Non-state armed groups are recognized as the main perpetrators. This information

accentuates the growing dangers faced by children in African conflict zones, offering a

framework for evaluating child protection in areas impacted by terrorism. The findings also

illustrate how structural vulnerabilities, fragile governance, and activities of non-state actors

amplify risks for children.

International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). (2023). Children and armed conflict in Africa:

Challenges and responses. ICRC Report. This report examines the difficulties children

encounter in conflict zones across Africa, such as forced recruitment, sexual violence,

displacement, and assaults on educational institutions and medical facilities. Field missions and

case studies conducted in 15 African nations illustrate the various harms faced by children,

including psychological distress, disrupted education, and separation from their families.

Additionally, the report explores protective measures, such as demobilization initiatives and

community support systems, emphasizing the necessity for unified efforts among humanitarian

organizations, government bodies, and local communities. The findings offer empirical evidence
on how children’s rights are infringed upon in African conflict zones and showcase strategies for

reducing harm in areas affected by terrorism.

African Child Policy Forum (ACPF). (2021). Children impacted by armed conflict in Africa:

Statistics, trends, and responses. Addis Ababa: ACPF

This report offers comprehensive data on children impacted by armed conflict in Africa, focusing

on West and Central Africa. Reported violations encompass recruitment, abduction, assaults on

educational institutions, and sexual exploitation. Examined intervention strategies include

rehabilitation, reintegration programs, psychosocial support, and legal protection measures. The

report underscores regional differences in vulnerability, pointing out that children in border and

rural areas prone to conflict face increased risks. Empirical data are sourced from government

statistics, UN verification reports, and monitoring by NGOs. The findings provide insights into

the patterns of violations and interventions in African conflict zones, which are pertinent for

analyzing terrorism-impacted regions in Nigeria.

Human Rights Watch (HRW). (2020). “They Said We Are Their Slaves”: Child Soldiers in

Africa. New York: Human Rights Watch. This report investigates the recruitment and utilization

of children by armed factions across various African nations, such as Nigeria, the Central African

Republic, and Somalia. It presents both qualitative and quantitative data on the physical,

psychological, and social repercussions of child soldiering. Accounts from survivors illustrate the

enduring trauma, societal stigma, disruption in education, and exposure to severe violence they

endure. The report discusses rehabilitation and reintegration initiatives, highlighting both

accomplishments and shortcomings. The documentation provides empirical insight into the

comprehensive threats that children encounter in conflict zones and demonstrates interventions

that can help reduce harm in areas affected by terrorism.

2.3.3 Nigeria’s Context

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF Nigeria). (2023, March 15). Child protection in

Nigeria: Trends and challenges. UNICEF Nigeria. This document outlines the effects of

terrorism, insurgency, and communal violence on children in Nigeria, with a particular emphasis

on the states in the Northeast affected by Boko Haram. It records instances of child recruitment

into armed factions, abduction, sexual violence, attacks on educational institutions, and

disruptions in schooling. From 2015 to 2022, more than 20,000 children were documented as

abducted or forcibly recruited. The report underlines the enduring psychosocial trauma

experienced by children, which includes post-traumatic stress and societal marginalization.

Additionally, it assesses the intervention strategies employed by government bodies and NGOs,

such as rehabilitation and reintegration initiatives. The findings offer an extensive overview of

the obstacles to child protection in Nigeria and stress the necessity for state-specific research to

grasp the regional dynamics of terrorism and its effects on children.

Human Rights Watch (HRW). (2021). “They Came to Kill Us All”: Boko Haram Attacks on

Children in Northeast Nigeria. New York: HRW. This document presents in-depth

documentation of Boko Haram’s repercussions on children in northeastern Nigeria. HRW reports

that thousands of children have been killed, abducted, or exploited in combat, many of whom

have faced sexual violence and forced marriages. Schools and healthcare facilities were

frequently targeted, resulting in significant educational disruption and displacement. The report

relies on interviews with survivors, their families, and local officials, offering qualitative insights

into the psychological, social, and economic aftermath for impacted children. The empirical data

underscores the various threats terrorism poses to Nigerian children and calls for comprehensive

child protection and rehabilitation strategies in the affected areas.

International Crisis Group (ICG). (2022). Nigeria: Protecting Children Amid Rising Terrorist

Attacks. Brussels: ICG. This report examines the dangers posed to children in Nigeria by Boko

Haram and other extremist groups, concentrating on northeastern states. It records systematic

abduction, forced recruitment, school closures, and sexual exploitation, affecting over 15,000

children between 2015 and 2021. The report reviews the responses from the Nigerian

government and civil society, including rehabilitation programs, educational efforts, and

community protection mechanisms. It provides empirical evidence regarding the scale and

severity of the violations faced by children and emphasizes gaps in policy execution,

demonstrating that, despite existing national frameworks, children continue to be highly

susceptible in areas impacted by terrorism.

National Human Rights Commission (NHRC Nigeria). (2020). Annual Report on Human Rights

Violations Affecting Children in Nigeria. Abuja: NHRC.

The NHRC's annual report details the infringements of children’s rights amid terrorism and

armed conflict throughout Nigeria. During the period of 2019-2020, over 12,000 children were

reported as being affected by violent events in Borno, Yobe, Adamawa, and other northern

regions. The report emphasizes recruitment into armed factions, abduction, sexual violence, and

the destruction of educational facilities. Furthermore, it assesses the interventions put forth by

government agencies, which include reintegration initiatives and psychosocial support. The

report presents empirical evidence of ongoing violations and highlights the importance of

persistent monitoring and focused policy implementation to safeguard children in Nigeria’s

regions affected by conflict.

2.3.4 Kwara state context

Kwara State Government. (2025, January 14). Kwara Government reiterates zero tolerance for

child abuse, sexual abuse, and gender-based violence. Vanguard News. This article outlines a

proclamation by the Commissioner for Women Affairs in Kwara State establishing a zero-

tolerance stance against child abuse, sexual abuse, and gender-based violence. It notes the

successful prosecution of two offenders of sexual abuse who received life sentences and

encourages the public to report instances of abuse, referring to the Child Rights Act and the

VAPP Law. The piece contextualizes Kwara's governmental commitment to safeguarding

children and vulnerable populations within its social development agenda. From an empirical

perspective, this source serves as evidence of institutional acknowledgment of challenges in

child protection within the state and exhibits a policy reaction to abuse relevant for evaluating

how state-level entities address child safety. Although it does not specifically address terrorism

or armed conflict, this article is useful for the Kwara-context section by establishing a baseline

for child protection initiatives and legal enforcement within the state. The drawback lies in its

journalistic nature, information on the prevalence of abuse, children impacted by terrorism, or

detailed outcomes is lacking but it remains beneficial for illustrating the administrative

environment and the legal-policy framework pertinent to child protection in Kwara.

Kwara State Government. (2025, May 6). KWSG reaffirms its dedication to child care and

protection. New Telegraph Nigeria. This article discusses the establishment of the State

Technical Working Group on Alternative Care for Children in Kwara State. The Commissioner

for Women Affairs revealed the initiative and confirmed the state’s adherence to the National

Guidelines for Alternative Care of Children in Nigeria. The committee aims to develop plans,

identify advocacy partners, and ensure the safe nurturing of children. This source is empirical as

it demonstrates an ongoing institutional effort aimed at enhancing child welfare infrastructure in

the state, which is pertinent when evaluating protective systems for children in environments

affected by violence or insecurity. For the purposes of studying terrorism and child protection,

this source provides insights into state-level frameworks that may reduce child vulnerability

(e.g., alternative care systems for children displaced or impacted by conflict). The limitation is

that it lacks data on how violence or terrorism has influenced children in Kwara; it centers on

program initiation rather than outcomes or instances of child rights violations.

The Nation Nigeria. (2023, October 11). Kwara at risk of human trafficking, child labor NAPTIP.

This report presents findings from the National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in

Persons (NAPTIP) indicating that Kwara State is susceptible to human trafficking and child

labor due to its geographical position and role as a transit hub in Nigeria. The article cites the

state NAPTIP commandant on the dangers of forced labor, child labor, prostitution, and other

trafficking-related abuses. In the context of empirical review, this source is particularly valuable

as it highlights a specific form of child rights violation (trafficking/child labor) that is frequently

associated with insecurity, displacement, and inadequate protection systems, issues that may

intersect with the impacts of terrorism. For research on terrorism and child protection, the state’s

vulnerability to trafficking points to pathways through which children may become entrapped in

exploitative circumstances when security is compromised or when violence leads to

displacement. The limitation is that the article does not furnish quantitative data on trafficking or

make direct connections to terrorism or insurgency incidents; however, it offers a relevant

context of child vulnerability in Kwara that pertains to broader protective issues.

Ibrahim, L. S. (2025, April). The Impact of Child Abuse on the Academic Achievement of

Students in Public Primary Schools within Kwara Central Senatorial District. International

Journal of Modern Science and Research Technology, 3(4).

This article examines how child abuse relates to academic performance among students in the

Kwara Central Senatorial District. The research found that child abuse adversely impacts

academic success and suggested implementing gender-sensitive initiatives in schools to aid

affected students. For the purpose of empirical review, this source offers specific quantitative

evidence related to how violations of child rights, specifically abuse, influence educational

outcomes in Kwara. In the context of studies on terrorism and child protection, this information

is pertinent as disrupted educational experiences and challenges related to child welfare can arise

in situations affected by violence. Although the research does not specifically address terrorism

or violence resulting from conflict, it provides empirically supported data concerning child abuse

and education within the Kwara context, which is valuable for investigating secondary

consequences of insecurity on children (such as educational disruption, abuse, and neglect). A

limitation of this study is its lack of direct connections to terrorism or insurgency, yet it

reinforces the local empirical foundation for child protection issues within Kwara State.

2.4 Gap In Literature.

The body of research concerning the effects of terrorism and insurgency on children has

significantly expanded over the past ten years, yet considerable gaps persist, particularly in

examining localized situations such as Kwara State in Nigeria. On a global scale, organizations

like UNICEF and Human Rights Watch have conducted thorough assessments of how armed

conflict and terrorism impact children. According to UNICEF (2022), more than 67,000 children

in West and Central Africa were subjected to serious violations, including killings, abductions,

forced recruitment, sexual exploitation, assaults on schools, and denial of humanitarian aid.

These reports highlight a distinct pattern of the multifaceted threats faced by children,

encompassing physical, social, and psychological repercussions. While these studies are
enlightening at the continental level, they frequently offer aggregated data and lack detailed,

country-specific or subnational insights, which diminishes the relevance of their findings to

places like Kwara.

In the African context, comparable trends are evident. Reports from the International Committee

of the Red Cross (ICRC, 2023) and the African Child Policy Forum (2021) emphasize the

susceptibility of children to the activities of armed groups, sexual exploitation, and psychological

trauma. Research illustrates how insecurity in the West and Central African regions leads to child

displacement, educational disruptions, and enduring psychological damage. Although these

analyses contribute to a valuable understanding of the systemic challenges facing child

protection across the continent, they fail to account for the nuances of Nigerian states that may

not be in direct conflict zones but are still indirectly influenced by rising insecurity and border

threats. As a result, the applicability of findings drawn from broader African contexts to Kwara

State remains questionable, given its unique social, political, economic, and security

characteristics.

Within Nigeria, empirical investigations have largely concentrated on the northeastern states of

Borno, Yobe, and Adamawa, where Boko Haram and the Islamic State of West Africa Province

(ISWAP) have directly targeted children through abductions, forced recruitment, assaults on

educational institutions, and sexual violence (UNICEF Nigeria, 2023; HRW, 2021; ICG, 2022).

These studies offer substantial evidence regarding the gravity of child rights violations and their

long-term effects on education, psychological well-being, and successful reintegration into

society. However, although these findings shed light on the experiences of children in high-

intensity conflict zones, they primarily overlook other regions in Nigeria, especially in the North-

Central zone like Kwara State. The focus on northeastern research creates a significant empirical
gap regarding children living in states subjected to the indirect fallout of terrorism, which

includes fear, communal strife, child trafficking, displacement, and economic instability, all of

which can severely affect child welfare.

There is a notable lack of empirical evidence specifically pertaining to Kwara State. The existing

literature mainly discusses broader child protection issues, such as abuse, trafficking, and

educational interruptions. For example, the Kwara State Government (2025) has reported

policies promoting a zero-tolerance approach to child abuse and the formation of Technical

Working Groups aimed at protecting children, whereas NAPTIP (2023) draws attention to the

state’s risks linked to human trafficking and child labor. Academic studies, such as Ibrahim

(2025), investigate the impact of child abuse on academic performance among students in the

Kwara Central Senatorial District, revealing detrimental effects on learning and development.

While these studies are insightful, they primarily focus on child abuse within a non-conflict

setting and do not directly examine the connections between terrorism, insecurity, and child

protection.

Furthermore, the existing literature often lacks empirical evidence regarding the psychological,

social, and educational impacts on children who are exposed to indirect threats from terrorism in

Kwara. It is acknowledged that terrorism can influence children even in regions that are not

directly targeted through the proliferation of fear, economic instability, displacement, or stress

within families yet there is a significant lack of research documenting these impacts in the state.

For instance, investigations into the indirect repercussions of terrorism in North-Central Nigeria,

particularly in Kwara, are notably limited, leaving policymakers and child protection

organizations without context-specific data to guide their interventions.

Another significant shortcoming is the analysis of institutional responses within Kwara State.

Although state policies and initiatives have been reported in media outlets and official

government statements (Kwara State Government, 2025; New Telegraph Nigeria, 2025), there is

minimal empirical assessment of their efficacy in addressing the vulnerability of children in

scenarios where security threats may not be direct but still have considerable psychosocial and

developmental effects. This represents a vital gap since it is crucial to understand the sufficiency

and shortcomings of local protective measures for devising evidence-informed interventions that

proactively protect children against potential repercussions of terrorism.

Moreover, much of the literature tends to concentrate either on qualitative accounts or

generalized quantitative findings, without merging these methodologies to thoroughly explore

the lived experiences of children impacted by indirect insecurity. This limitation reduces the

capacity to grasp both the scale of the issue and the intricate ways in which children navigate

vulnerability in states like Kwara. Research has largely neglected the integration of institutional,

sociocultural, and individual-level factors that elucidate child vulnerability and resilience in

regions that are somewhat affected. As a result, there is a lack of understanding regarding how

state-level legal structures, community initiatives, and family dynamics interact to either

alleviate or exacerbate the risks faced by children. Addressing these deficiencies is vital for

producing context-specific evidence that informs policy and intervention strategies in Kwara

State. By investigating the indirect effects of terrorism and insecurity on children within the

state, this study will enhance the existing literature by providing localized empirical insights,

identifying the strengths and weaknesses of institutions, and proposing methods for safeguarding

children’s rights and well-being. This perspective will also facilitate comparison with
international, African, and Nigerian trends, fostering a comprehensive understanding of child

protection in regions that are semi-affected.

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