Chapter - 2

Methods of Enquiry in Psychology

What is Psychological Enquiry?
Psychologists rely on formal and systematic, observations to describe, study, predict,
explain human behaviour.

Psychologists use a variety of research methods because questions about human

behaviour are numerous and all of them can’t studied by a single method.

Methods such as observation, experimental method, case study, correlational research,

survey, psychological testing, are frequently use to study the problems.

Psychological Enquiry is systematic development and testing of theory about human

behaviour and mental activities.

It’s a disciplined enquiry into human’s feelings, emotions, thoughts etc.

What are the Goals of Psychological Enquiry?
What are the Goals of Psychological Enquiry?
1. DESCRIPTION -

The first step is to describe the phenomena under study as accurately as possible.

This helps to define the phenomena and distinguish it from other phenomena.

Description is necessary because any event or behaviour may have many aspects.

Example: The idea of entertainment varies from reading books to going to pubs,
depending upon the individual.

The recording of event or behaviour is an integral part of description.

2. PREDICTION-

Prediction means forecasting of events.

It establishes relationship between two variables.

Example: One might say exercising leads to weight loss.

In psychology, all predictions are made within a certain margin of error i.e. they are not to
the point or exact.

Prediction in psychology is more accurately done for the group than the individual,
because individual behaviour can’t be controlled and is very complex.
3. EXPLANATION -

Explanation involves knowing the cause or the reason behind the behaviour.

It also tries to understand the conditions under which a particular behaviour occur.

Example: A child behaves rudely whenever he is disturbed so his disturbances become the
cause of his rude behaviour.
4. CONTROL

Control means creating change in the phenomena or behaviour.

It refers to making behaviour happen, reduction in it or enhancement in it.

Example: If a child is not doing his homework, mother can put a condition that if he
doesn’t complete his work, he won’t be allowed to go outside to play, thus his mother tries
to persuade him to work, reduces his lazy attitude towards homework and enhances or
increases the behaviour leading to completion of homework.

The changes produced by psychological treatment in terms of therapy are good examples
of control.

Thus, control seeks to use knowledge to influence a phenomena.

5. APPLICATION -

Psychological researches are often conducted to solve various problems faced by the
society.

Psychology helps in solving problem at individual, organization or community level.

Example: Therapies are provided to individuals and counselling is also there to help them.

On organizational level, various psychological concepts like work motivation are used to
enhance performance.

At the community level, counselling is provided to help people engage in various helpful
and eco-friendly behaviours.
Steps in Conducting Scientific Research/Enquiry
 Steps in Conducting Scientific Research
Scientific research or study is a clearly defined process that goes through a
series of steps:

CONCEPTUALISING A PROBLEM

The process begins when a researcher selects a theme or topic for study.

Then the research questions or problems for the study is formulated.

Problem is based on the review of past research, observations and personal

experiences.

Problem indicates the relationship between variables.

Example: What is the relationship between reward and classroom learning?

The example mentioned indicates the relationship between reward and
learning.

In psychology, the problems may be related to (a) understanding our own

behaviour. (b) understanding others behaviour. (c) group influence on
individual behaviour. (d) Group behaviour and (e) organisational level (e.g. -
Problems related to work motivation etc.

After formulation of problem, the hypothesis is formed, which is the

tentative and testable statement about the relationship between two
variables.

Example- Increased amount of reward will lead to betterment in learning.

COLLECTING DATA

Data Collection requires developing a research design or a blueprint of the entire study.

Then participants of the study are decided, depending on the nature of the study, they
could be children, adolescents, college students, teachers, workers, elder people etc.

Then methods of data collection like observation, experimental method, correlational

method etc are decided.

The next decision is taken about the tools to be used, like interview schedule,
questionnaire, survey etc.

Then procedure for data collection is decided i.e. how the tools need to be administered
to collect data i.e. individual to collect data i.e. individual or group administration.

This is followed by actual data collection.

DRAWING CONCLUSIONS

The next step is to analyse data to understand its meaning.

The graphical representations of data is made, using Bar Diagram, Pie Chart,
Histogram, Mean, Median, Mode, Standard Deviation etc.

The purpose of analysis is to verify a hypothesis and draw conclusions

accordingly.
REVISING RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS

The research begins with hypothesis.

Then researcher see whether the conclusions support this hypothesis or not.

If conclusions support hypothesis then the hypothesis is confirmed.

If it is not confirmed researcher revises or states an alternative

hypothesis/theory and again test it and the same process continues.
 Characteristics of Scientific Research
❖ OBJECTIVITY: It refers to arriving at the similar conclusion about a
particular event when it is studied by two different persons.

Example: If two children count the number of buttons on a T.V. remote, they
should arrive at same conclusions.

❖ SYSTEMATIC INVESTIGATION: Scientific research should have

predetermined steps to follow.

Example: Conceptualisation of a problem, collection of data, drawing

conclusions and revising research conclusion & theory.
 Alternative Paradigms in Research
Interpretive method emphasises understanding over explanation and prediction.

It takes the stand that, in view of complex and variable nature of human behaviour and experience,
it’s method of investigation should be different from the method of investigation of physical world.

This viewpoint emphasises the importance of how human beings give meaning to events and actions
and interpret them as they occur in a particular context.

Example: in situations such as persons experiencing suffering due to external factors (such as
earthquakes, cyclone) or internal factors (such as prolonged illness), objective measurement is
neither possible nor desirable.

Everyone interprets reality in her/his own way based on past experiences and contexts.

Therefore, there is a need to understand the subjective interpretation of the reality.

The goal here is to explore the different aspects of human experiences and behaviour without
attempting to disturb its nature flow.
 Nature of Psychological Data
Data is any information related to mental processes, experiences, and behaviour, collected by
using various tools.

Types of Psychological Data:

- Demographic Information- This information includes personal information related to a

particular individual. This includes name, age, gender, education, marital status,
residence, caste, religion, income etc. which are personally relevant.

- Physical Information- This includes information pertaining to physical environment i.e.

ecological condition. It also includes information about economy, housing conditions,
facilities at home, in the school, transportation etc.
- Physiological Data- This is related to Biological data. For eg- height, weight, heart rate,
level of fatigue, EEG, reaction time, sleep, blood pressure etc are collected. Data related
to animal’s biological functioning is also collected.

- Psychological Information- This includes data regarding psychological functioning of

individual. It involves data about intelligence, personality, attitudes, values, emotions,
motivation, psychological dysfunctions, consciousness etc. Thus, obtained data is divided
into various categories , so that it can be analysed using statistical measure.
 Methods of Psychological Enquiry
Observation Method

Survey Research Method

Psychological Testing Method

Case Study Method

Correlational Research Method

Experimental Method
OBSERVATION METHOD
❖ Observation- It is the intentional noting, recording and examination of
events without formal manipulation of variables operating in the events
under study. It refers to looking for certain categories or responses in
systematic manner. Eg- Observing a child how he is behaving with his
friends.
❖ Suppose a researcher wants to know about the eating habits of a
students of boarding school, and want to compare with other day
boarding school students, he’ll use observation as a tool to study them.
❖ Observation involves following steps:
- Selection
- Recording
- Analysis of Data
Step 1- SELECTION - Psychologists select a category of behaviour for
observation, they do not observe everything. Eg- In the process of observing
eating habits, observer may focus on whether the children waste food or not.

Sometimes categories are prepared in advance and checked other times,

categories are made on the basis of observed behaviour.

Step 2- RECORDING - The observed behaviour is recorded for further

references using various tools like checklist, recording device audio and video,
shorthand, symbols etc.

Step 3- ANALYSIS OF DATA - Analysis is done to infer meaning of the data.

Types of Observation-

(A) Naturalistic Observation VS Controlled Observation

Naturalistic Observation- Observation is carried out in complete natural

setting. Observer makes no efforts to control or manipulate the situation for
making an observation.

Example: Observing bargaining behaviour of both men and women in market.

Controlled Observation- This observation is done in laboratory conditions.

This is done to control many extraneous factors or to create situations which
can’t be studied in natural setting.

Example: To study how people react in emergency we need to create these

situations as they can’t be studied adequately in real life settings.
(B) Participant Observation VS Non-Participant Observation

Participant Observation- Here the observer takes part in observation process.

He might already be the member of the group or may join it.

Example: Suppose a principal of the school want to observe effects of his

disciplinary actions on behaviour of students, the principal is a participant in
the observation process.

Non-Participant Observation- Here the observer watches from outside, using

various tools. He/she might be a part of the group without interfering in the
activities.

Example: Often close-circuit cameras are installed in big malls to keep a watch
over customers.
Merits of Observation Method

1. One major advantage of observation is to capture and study human

behaviour as it actually happens.
2. It helps in snapshot comprehension of the activities of the persons in real
and social life.
3. It provides a graphic description of real life events of which we are not
aware or take them for granted.
4. It helps in exploration of those variables which are overlooked but they
are important.
5. It identifies important regularities and recurrences in social life by
comparing and contrasting the data obtained in a particular study with
those obtained in the study of various natural settings.
6. It captures those significant events or occurrences that affect relation
among persons.
7. The events which can’t be studied in lab can be studied here.
Demerits of Observation Method

1. Observation method is time consuming, labour intensive and costly.

2. Observation requires great expertise to carry out observation. He must
have complete knowledge about what to observe, when to observe and
how to observe.
3. Observations are susceptible to observer bias. The values and beliefs of
the investigator who is observing may influence the observation.
4. Interpretation of data needs to be done very carefully with great
precision.
5. Sometimes when the participants know they are being observed they
become self-conscious, and this destroys natural context of the
behaviour.
SURVEY RESEARCH
Survey research came into existence to study opinions, attitudes and social facts.

The survey research uses different techniques for collecting information such as: Personal
Interviews, Questionnaires, Telephonic Surveys, Controlled Observations.

PERSONAL INTERVIEWS

An interview is a purposeful activity conducted to derive factual information, opinions and

attitudes and reasons for particular behaviour etc from the respondents.

The interview method is used to obtain information from people.

There is a interviewer (who takes the interview and asks the questions) and other is
interviewee (who answers the questions related to a problem/issue).

Generally conducted face to face but sometimes it can also take place over the phone.
An interview may have following combinations of participants:

A) Individual to Individual
B) Individual to Group
C) Group to Individual
D) Group to Group

These interviews can be of two broad types-

❖ Structured or Standardised Interview- It is the one where the questions in the schedule are
written clearly in a particular sequence. The interviewer has little or no liberty to make changes in the
wordings of the questions or the order in which they are to asked. The responses to these questions
are also specified. These are called closed questions.

❖ Unstructured or Non-Standardised Interview- The interview has the flexibility to take decisions
about the questions to be asked, the wording of the questions and the sequence in which questions
are to be asked. Since responses are not specified in such type of interviews, the respondent can
answer the questions the way they chooses to. Such questions are called open-ended questions.
Role of the Interviewer in the Interview-

- Interviewing is a skill which requires proper training.

- A good interviewer knows how to make the respondent at ease and get
the optimal level of answer.
- He/She must remain sensitive to the way person responds and if
required, can probe more information.
- If the respondent gives vague answers, the interviewer may try to get
specific and concrete answers.
- An interviewer can know whether the respondent understands the
questions, if not understood, can repeat/paraphrase questions.
Advantages of Interview Method:

- Helps in obtaining in-depth information.

- Flexible and adaptable to individual situations and can often be used
when no other method is possible or adequate.
- Can be used with children and non-literate people.

Limitations of Interview Method:

- Requires time.
- May not be cost effective
QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY

- Most common, simple, versatile, and low cost self-report method to collect the
information.
- Consists of predetermined set of questions.
- The respondent has to read the questions and respond to it than answering it verbally.
- Questionnaires can be disturbed to respondents and can be sent back to researcher
within a specific time frame.
- Two types of questions are used to ask questions from respondents.
- Open Ended Questions- Respondent is free to write whatever answer he/she considers
appropriate.
- Close Ended Questions- The questions and their probable answers are given and
respondent is required to select the correct answer. Like Yes/No or True/False
Advantages of Questionnaires:

- Used for collecting background & demographic information

- Used to collect information about past behaviour, attitudes, opinions,
knowledge about a particular topic.
- Simple and Low cost method

Limitations of Questionnaires:

- Sometimes questionnaire survey are sent through mails. The problem of

mailed questionnaire is poor response from the respondents.
TELEPHONIC SURVEY

- Surveys are also conducted through telephone.

- Helps in reducing time.
- Since the respondent do not know the interviewer, the technique is
fraught with uncooperativeness, reluctance and superficial answers by
the respondents.
- There is also a possibility that those responding may differ from those not
responding eg on age, gender, income levels, education levels etc. This
will lead to very biased kinds of results.

OBSERVATIONS

- Surveys are also conducted through observations. (Discussed Earlier)

Advantages of Survey Method-

- Information can be gathered quickly & efficiently through thousands of

people.
- Since surveys can be conducted quickly, public opinions on new can be
obtained almost as soon as the issue arises.

Limitations of Survey Method:

- People may give inaccurate information because of memory lapses or

they may not want to let the researcher know what they really believe
about a particular issue.
- People sometimes offer responses they think the researcher wants to
here.
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING
- Psychologists have constructed different types of tests for assessment of various
human characteristics such as Intelligence, Aptitude, Personality, Interest etc.
- These tests are used for various purposes like training, placement, recruitment,
guidance and are used in educational institutions, industries, clinic set ups & so on.
- A test must be selected & used with extra care.
- The decision maker should not rely on any single test.
- Test data should be combined with information a person’s background, interests,
and past performances.

Characteristics of a Psychological Test

- A psychological test should be clearly defined, unambiguous and the items in the
test should be related to the main attribute.
- Most importantly, a psychological test must be OBJECTIVE & STANDARDISED
A test is said to be objective when two or more researchers administer the
test on the same group of people, both of them would come up with more or
less the same values for each person in the group.

A test is said to be standardised when it has clearly determined the details

of procedures of administration and interpretation of a test. It also includes
determining during of testing, sequence of presentation of items and
sub-parts instructions etc.

*A construction of the test is done in a systematic manner i.e. the test must
have reliability, validity & norms.
What is Reliability?

Reliability of the test refers to the consistency of scores obtained by an individual on the same test on two
different occasions.

Example- You administer an IQ test on a group of students to check their intelligence level and re-administer the
same test, on the same students after a period of 2 weeks. If the test is reliable then, there should not be any
variation in the scores obtained by the students on the two occasions.

Types of Reliability

1. Test-Retest Reliability - Indicating the stability of test scores over time.

How to calculate Test-Retest Reliability? - It is computed by finding out coefficient of correlation between
two sets of scores on the same set of people.

1. Split-Half Reliability- Indicating about the internal consistency of the test. It means that items of the test
should correlate with each other.

How to calculate Split Half Reliability? - The test is divided into two equal halves, employing odd (Item 1,3,5…
) and even method (Item 2,4,6 ….) and correlation is computed between the scores of odd and even items.
What is Validity?

The test should measure what it claims to measure, describes the validity of a
test.

Example- if you have constructed a test of numerical ability, the test must
measure numerical ability and have questions related to maths only.

What are Norms?

Norms depicts the normal or the average performance on a large number of

group. Norms help in comparing the performance of an individual student
with respect to the others. It also helps in interpreting individual’s score
obtained on a test.

Example- The test administered on a large number of students. Their average

performance standards are based on their age, sex, place of residence etc.
Different Types of Psychological Tests -

A) ON THE BASIS OF LANGUAGES-

❖ Verbal Test- A verbal test demands understanding of written words.

Response are also written. There they can be administered to literates
only.
❖ Non-Verbal Test- In non verbal tests, items are made of symbols or
pictures. Use of language is limited to instructions only.
❖ Performance Test- They use concrete object like blocks or puzzles. Testing
requires physical manipulation of the material in a particular order.
B) ON THE BASIS OF MODE OF ADMINISTRATION

❖ Individual Tests- They are given to only one person at a time. There is face
to face interaction involved in individual tests. They can be answered
orally or in written form or manipulating an object as in performance
tests. They are used for diagnosis and remediation of individual learning
difficulties.

❖ Group Tests- They are administered on a large number of persons. They

involve multiple choice objective questions. Instructions about answering
the items etc are written on the test which the testee himself and answers
the questions accordingly. They are used for mass screening. They are
easy to administer and less time consuming and economical.
C) ON THE BASIS OF DIFFICULTY LEVEL

❖ Speed Tests- In these there is a time limit to answer all the items.
Evaluation is based on the time taken to answer the items accurately.
Lesser the time taken to respond, more positive the evaluations. All the
items in the speed test are of the same difficulty level.

❖ Power Tests- These tests do not have any time limit. Items are arranged in
an increasing order of difficulty.
 CASE STUDY
- It is a method in which one individual is studied using multiple measures.
- It’s goal is to provide an in depth descriptive amount of some phenomenon.

Characteristics of Case Study:

- In Case Study, an individual is taken as the unit of analysis.

- Focus is directed to particular case (individual) and not the method of analysis.
- Various methods of analysis are combined to gain information.
- A case study may utilise interview, observation and psychological test.
- Usually case study investigates some phenomena in real life context in which multiple sources like
medical history, social history and family history of the individual are taken into account.
- Multiple sources of information are used.
- They provide a narrative or detailed description of the events that take place in a person’s life.
- It can’t be generalized as they depict the life history of an individual.
- Those unique aspects of a person’s life which can’t be duplicated for practical or ethical reasons eg.
accident, are captured by case study.
- It is valuable research strategy in the fields of clinical psychology and human development.
 - Psychoanalytic theory by Sigmund Freud, was emerged from his
observations and meticulous records maintained on individual cases.
- Case studies have been conducted to understand the pattern of
socialisation of children. Eg- Minturn & Hitchcock conducted a case study
of socialisation of children among Rajputs of Khalapur.

Advantages of Case Study:

● It provides a detailed in-depth depictions of people’s lives.

● The information is collected using multiple strategies, hence it’s a
comprehensive study.

Limitations of Case Study:

● To generalise on the basis of individual cases one needs to be very

cautious.
● The problem of validity in a single case study is quite challenging.
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Experiments are generally conducted to establish cause-effect relationship
between two sets of events or variables in a controlled setting.

In experiment, cause is the event being changed or manipulated. Effect is the

behaviour that changes because of the manipulation.

What is Experimental Method?

It is a research method in which researchers systematically refer one or more

variables in order to determine whether such changes influence some aspect
of behaviour.
What is a Variable?

Variable is any stimulus or event which varies or can take on different values and
can be measured. Eg- Intelligence, Height, Weight, Colour, etc are variable i.e. they
can take on different values.

Types of Variable :

❖ Independent Variable

The variable which is systematically manipulated or altered in an experiment is

called Independent Variable. It is the cause.

Example- To study effect of noise on learning speed.

Here is noise is an Independent Variable which can be manipulated by having

different degree of sound ranging from low to high or absence of it.
❖ Dependent Variable

Dependent variable is the variable that is measured in an experiment. It is effect.

Example- To study effect of noise on learning speed.

Here, speed of learning is dependent variable which can be measured in terms of

time taken to learn.

❖ Extraneous Variable

Any variable other than Independent Variable which affects the dependent variable
is called extraneous or relevant variable.

Example- To study effect of noise (I.V) on learning speed (D.V). Extraneous variable
could be level of one’s intelligence, emotional state of the person, individual
differences in learning etc.
Types of Extraneous Variable-

1. Organismic Variable- Such as Anxiety, Intelligence, Personality

1. Environmental/Situation Variable- Such as Noise, Temperature, Humidity

1. Sequential Variables- Sequence related variables used when the

participants in experiments are required to be tested in several conditions
Effect of Noise on Learning Speed ?
 What are Experimental Groups and Control Groups ?

Experimental Group- It’s a group in which members of the group are

exposed to independent variable manipulation.

In other words, in an experiment, one group is administered independent

variable- the variable that is manipulated to see its effect on any other
variable under study.

Control Group- It is a comparison group that is treated in every way like the
experimental group except that the independent variable is not administered
on this group.

The purpose is to see whether any difference occur in two groups as a result
of application of independent variable on experimental group. The difference
between the two groups is measured.
Experiment conducted by Latane & Darley (Given in the book, Pg 30-31)

● In their experiment, there were one control group, and two experimental groups
(experimental group 1 and experimental group 2).
● Participants were sent to these three rooms.
● In the first room, no one was present in the room. (CONTROL GROUP).
● In the second and third room, two people were already seated in those rooms.
(EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 1 and EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 2)

● Out of the two experimental group, Experiment Group 1 was not given any instruction.
● Whereas the participants in the experimental group 2, were instructed not to do anything
when smoke fills in the room.

● After the smoke was filled in the room (experimental manipulation), it was seen that-

Control group- Maximum participants reported about the emergency, followed by Experimental
group 1 (where no instruction was given) and Experimental group 2 reported emergency
situation, the least.
Important Points related to the experiment discussed previously-

1. In the experiment, except for experimental manipulation, other

manipulation/condition must be kept constant for both experimental and control
groups.
2. Other relevant/extraneous variables which influence dependent variable must be
controlled. (Eg- in the Latane & Darley experiment, extraneous/relevant variable
such as total amount smoke entering the room).
3. All relevant/extraneous variables which influence dependent variable must be kept
constant (Eg- in the Latane & Darley experiment, situational or environmental
variables were held constant).
4. The distribution of participants to experimental and control groups was done
randomly (each person has a equal chance of being included in any of the group).
5. If one of the group has male participants and the other group had female
participants, the results obtained in the study, could be due to gender differences
than experimental manipulation.
How to control extraneous or relevant variable in an experiment?

➢ ELIMINATION- It refers to blocking any chance of occurence of extraneous variables. It is done

by creating conditions which are ideal to conduct an experiment. Eg- Conducting the
experiment early in the morning to reduce the effect of fatigue as subject is fresh in the
morning.

➢ MATCHING- Elimination is sometime not possible in subjective variables, like interest,

motivation, fear, gender, and background factors etc. So, matching is used to keep extraneous
variables constant by taking matched pairs across conditions of the experiment. Eg- Taking
participant for both of the two (experimental & control) groups from rural background

➢ COUNTER BALANCING- This is done to eliminate sequence effect. Instead of giving the task in
same order to the group, the order may be interchanged. Eg- AB and BA. If the task is to be
given to the same individual it can be given in A, B, B, A order.
➢ CONSTANCY- When elimination is not possible, the variables are kept
constant throughout the experiment. Eg- If the noise is being unavoidable,
it is kept for the entire experiment, so that its effect remains the same.

➢ RANDOM ASSIGNMENT- This means each & every participant in the

study have the chance of being selected in experimental or control group.
This eliminates any prevailing bias which may affect the study. Eg- If two
mixed group of boys and girls are to be formed, then everyone should
have the chance to be in experimental or control group.
 Field Experiments and Quasi Experiments

● Field Experiments- If a researcher wants to have a generalisability or to

conduct studies which are not possible in laboratory settings, she/he may
go to the field or the natural setting where particular phenomenon
actually exists.

Eg- If a researcher wants to know which method would lead to better

learning among students- lecture or demonstration method. For this, a
researcher may prefer to conduct an experiment in the school.

In these types of experiments, the control over relevant/extraneous

variables is less as compare to lab experiments.

Most time consuming & expensive.

Sometimes, variables cannot be manipulated in the laboratory settings.

For Example- if you want to study the effect of an earthquake on children who
lost their parents, you cannot create this condition artificially in the lab. For
such experiments, we use Quasi Experiments.

● Quasi Experiments - Here the independent variable is selected rather

than manipulated by the experimenter.

Example- To study the effect of an earthquake on children who lost their

parents. For this, in experimental group, children who their parents during
earthquake are selected and in control group, children who experienced
earthquake but did not lose their parents are to be selected.
Advantages of Experimental Method-

- Based on establishing the cause-effect relationship between the variables.

- Replication and Verification of obtained result is possible.
- The investigator can manipulate the independent variable according to
the demands of the situation.
- It can be performed at any time.
- It is very objective as no personal bias exists.

Disadvantages of Experimental Method-

- Most of the experiments are conducted in a very artificial and unrealistic

situations. The setting is not nature.
- They lack external validity. Since they are not done in natural settings, the
results can’t be generalized with confidence.
- It is difficult to control and know all extraneous variables.
 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
- A research method in which researchers attempt to determine, whether and to what extent different
variables are related to each other.

- Example:
- To study the relationship between intelligence and adjustment
- Relationship between healthy lifestyle and positive well-being
- Relationship between occupational stress and employee’s life routine
- Relationship between one’s academic scores and level of confidence

- The strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables is represented by a number
known as correlation coefficient and the Value range of correlation is from +1.0 to -1.0
Coefficient of correlation is of three types:

A) Positive Correlation: It indicates that increase or decrease in one variable

leads to increase or decrease in other variable too.

Eg: As the level of intelligence increases, adjustment level also improves and vice
versa.

A) Negative Correlation: It indicates that as the value of one variable increases

the value of other variable decreases.

Eg: You may find that adjustment level decreases with increasing intelligence level
(sometimes highly intelligence people are not well adjusted).

A) Zero Correlation: It indicates that no relation exists between the two

variables.

Eg- Intelligence & Adjustment are not related.

Advantages of Correlation Method:

- It can be used when variables can’t be manipulated.

- When it is unethical to manipulate the variable, correlation is used.
- It can be used when event has already taken place (eg: any natural disaster)
- It can be used to study behaviour in a natural setting.
- It can yield a large amount of data in a short time.
- It can be exerted to include many different variables at once.

Limitations of Correlation Method:

- While using correlation method, interpretation of data should be done with

great care & expertise.
- This method is not very objective since it is not done in controlled conditions.
- Correlation do not establishes cause-effect relationship between two
variables.
 Analysis of Data
After the data is collected, the next job of the researcher is to draw conclusions which requires
analysis of data. Two methods are used for the analysis of data:

1. Quantitative Method: The data collected from questionnaires, psychological tests, structured
interview etc are used by the researcher to convert the psychological attributes into quantity
(usually numbers). For the purpose of drawing conclusions, a researcher may compare
individual’s score with that of the group or compare the scores of two groups using certain
statistical methods like mean, mode, median, standard deviation, range etc. After using
statistics, the researcher make inferences and give meaning to the data.

1. Qualitative Method: Whenever the data is collected using methods like observation,
unstructured interview etc, the data are generally in a descriptive form- in participants’ own
words, field notes, photographs, informal talks etc. These type can’t be converted into scores or
subject to statistics. Hence, for such data, techniques like narrative analysis, content analysis,
ethnography. After using such techniques, the researcher make inferences and give meaning to
data.
 Limitations of Psychological Enquiry
1. Lack of true zero point: Psychological measurements do not have a true zero
point. Example: No person in this world has zero intelligence. Psychologists
arbitrarily decide a point as zero point and proceed further. As a result, whatever
scores they get in psychological studies are not absolute in nature rather they have
relative value.

1. Relative nature of psychological tools: Psychological tests are developed keeping

in view the salient features of a particular context. Example: a test developed for
urban students may contain items that demand familiarity with the stimuli
available in the urban setting multi storeyed buildings, aeroplanes, metro railways
etc. Such a test is not suitable for us with children living in tribal areas who would
be more at ease with items that describe their flora and fauna.
3. Subjective interpretation of Qualitative Data: Data from qualitative studies are
largely subjective since they involve interpretation on the part of the researcher as well
as the person providing data. The interpretation may vary from one individual to
another. Hence, in qualitative studies, the field work should be done by more than one
investigator, who at the end of the day should discuss their observations and arrive at
an agreement before giving final meaning to it.
 Ethical Issues in Psychological Enquiry
1. Voluntary Participation: This principle states that persons on whom the study is to be
conducted should have the choice to decide whether to participate or not to participate
in the study. The participants should have the freedom to decide about their
participation in the study. The participants should have the freedom to decide about
their participation without any coercion or excessive inducement and the freedom to
withdraw from the research without penalty, once it has began.

1. Informed Consent: It is essential that the participants in a study should understand

what will happen to them during the study. According to this principle potential
participants must receive this information before data from them are collected, so that
they make an informed decision about participation in the study.
3. Debriefing: After the study is over, the participants are provided with necessary
information to complete their understanding of research. Debriefing ensures that participants
leave the study in the same physical and mental state as when they entered.

4. Sharing the results of the study: It is obligatory for the researcher to go back to
participants and share the results of the study with them. It is the moral duty of a researcher
to go back to participants. It fulfils the expectations of the participants, and also the
participants may tell their opinion about the results, which sometimes may help developing
new sights.

5. Confidentiality of Data Source: The participants in a study have the right to privacy. Their
privacy must safeguarded by keeping the information provided by them in strict confidence.
The information should only be used for research purposes and in no circumstances, it should
be passed on to other interested parties. After the research is completed the identification list
should be destroyed immediately.
 How To Formulate Hypothesis and figure out
Independent & Dependent Variable?
Hypothesis is a tentative and testable statement which expresses relation
between two or more variables.

Independent Variable is the one which can be manipulated or altered in an

experiment.

Dependent Variable is the variable that is measured in an experiment. It is effect.

Problem: A researcher is studying relation between speed of cycling in the
presence of other people

HYPOTHESIS- Presence of other people will enhance the speed of cycling

I.V.- Presence of others

D.V.- Speed of Cycling

Problem: A researcher is studying relation between exam stress during the
board exams.

HYPOTHESIS- Exam stress will be high during board exams.

I.V.- Exam stress

D.V.- Board Exams

Problem: A researcher is studying the role of social media on one’s mental
health.

HYPOTHESIS- Role of social media affect one’s mental health poorly.

I.V.- Role of Social Media

D.V.- One’s Mental Health

Problem: A researcher is studying level of anxiety among general population
during covid-19 situation.

HYPOTHESIS- Level of anxiety among general population will be high during

covid-19 situation.

I.V.- Level of Anxiety

D.V.- General Population

Problem: A researcher is studying addiction of drugs on one’s physical &
mental health.

HYPOTHESIS- Addiction to drugs effects one’s physical & mental health badly.

I.V.- Addiction to drugs

D.V.- One’s physical & mental health

THANK YOU