V.

Experimental studies of QCD

1. Test of QCD in e+e- annihilation
2. Structure of the proton
3. Structure functions and quark densities
4. Scaling violation in DIS

1. Test of QCD in e+e- annihilation

1.1 Two-jet events and production of colored q⎯q

a) clear two-jet event structure in e +e − → hadrons (qq )
b) R had =
σ (ee → hadrons ) indicates fractional charges and N =3
C
σ (ee → µµ )

Additional indications for NC=3:

• ∆++ statistic problem:
Spin J(∆++)=3/2 (L=0), quark content |uuu>
→ ∆++ = u ↑ u ↑ u ↑ forbidden by Fermi statistic
Solution is additional quantum number for quarks (color)
1
∆++ = ε ijk ui ↑ u j ↑ uk ↑ i, j,k = color index
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1
 Additional indications for NC=3:
⎯f W
• Triangle anomalie γ
Divergent fermion loops

f W
Divergences cancel if NC = 3:

⎡ 2 1 ⎤
0 = ∑ Qf = ( −1) + ( −1) + ( −1) + NC ⋅ ⎢( − ) ⋅ 3⎥
f ⎣3 3 ⎦

3 generations of u/d-type quark

1.2 Discovery of the gluon

Discovery of 3-jet events by the TASSO

collaboration (PETRA) in 1977:

3-jet events are interpreted as quark

pairs with an additional hard gluon.

#3 − jet events
≈ 0.15 ~ α s αs is large
# 2 − jet events
at √s=20 GeV

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Spin of the gluon
Ellis-Karlinger angle

Ordering of 3 jets: E1>E2>E3

Measure direction of jet-1 in the

rest frame of jet-2 and jet-3: θEK Gluon spin J=1

1.3 Multi-jet events and gluon self coupling

Non Abelian gauge theory (QCD)

Casimir (color) factors:

4-jet events

4-jet cross section:

FA,B,C,D,E are kinematic functions

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Exploiting the angular distribution of 4-jets:
• Bengston-Zerwas angle
r r r r
cos χ BZ ∝ ( p1 × p2 ) ⋅ ( p3 × p4 )
• Nachtmann-Reiter angle
r r r r
cos θ NR ∝ ( p1 − p2 ) ⋅ ( p3 − p4 )
Allows to measure the ratios TF/CF and NC/CF
SU(3) predicts: TF/CF = 0.375 and NC/CF =2.25

NC/CF ≠ 0 → contribution from gluon

self-coupling in the 4-jet events

Confirms QCD prediction

(SU(3))
and gluon self-coupling

1.4 Measurement of strong coupling αs

αs measurements are done at fixed scale Q2: αs(Q2)

a) αs from total hadronic cross section

⎡ α s (s ) α (s ) 2 ⎤
σ had (s ) = σ had
QED
(s )⎢1 + + 1.411⋅ s 2 + ...⎥
⎣ π π ⎦
σ (ee → hadrons ) ⎧ α α2 ⎫
R had = = 3 ∑ Qq2 ⎨1 + s + 1.411 s2 + ...⎬
σ (ee → µµ ) ⎩ π π ⎭

Not very precise. αs(s)

b) αs from hadronic event shape variables

σ 3− jet
3-jet rate: R3 ≡ depends on αs
σ had

3-jet rate is measured as function of a jet resolution parameter ycut

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 Jet Algorithm

Hadronic particles are i and j grouped to a

pseudo particle k as long as the invariant
mass is smaller than the jet resolution
parameter:
mij2
< y cut
s

mij is the invariant mass of i and j.

Remaining pseudo particles are jets.

n-jet rate as function of ycut

QCD calculations provide a theoretical prediction for R3theo(αs , ycut)

→ fit R3theo(αs , ycut) to the data to determine αs
αs(s)

Similarly other event shape variables (sphericity, thrust,…) can be used to

obtain a prediction for αs

c) αs from hadronic τ decays

αs(mτ2)
τ Γ(τ → ν τ + Hadrons )
Rhad = ~ f (α s )
Γ(τ → ν τ + eυe )

d) αs from DIS (deep inelastic scattering)

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e) Running of αs
Similar to QED there are propagator corrections to be taken into account

screening anti-screening

Effective strong coupling αs(Q2)

Conventionally
αs (µ 2 )
α s (Q 2 ) = renormalization scale is
αs (µ )2
Q 2
1+ (33 − 2nf ) log 2 µ 2 = M Z2
12π µ

nf = active quark flavors For Q2→∞ αs →0:

µ2 = the renormalization scale At large Q2 quarks are
asymptotically free

Running of αs and asymptotic freedom

αs (µ 2 )
α s (Q 2 ) =
αs (µ )
2
Q2
1+ (33 − 2nf ) log 2
12π µ

6
 The Nobel Prize in Physics 2004

David J. Gross H. David Politzer Frank Wilczek

"for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction"

1.5 Description of hadron production in e+ e- annihilation

Described by Monte Carlo programs:

• HERWIG: Parton shower (partons are associated to colorless
clusters). Clusters with masses larger than MCl are split.
• JETSET: String fragmentation. Color string between colored
quarks. Gluons lead to “kinks”. Strings are fragmented

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 2. Structure of the proton
θ
− q 2 = 4EE ′ sin4
2.1 Elastic electron-proton scattering 2

dσ α2 E′
General form of diff. = ⋅ {KK} e θ
cross section dΩ 4EE ′ sin4 θ E
2 p M
non pointlike r r
Rutherford scattering partners k, E k ′, E ′
w/ spin
e
recoil
q = k − k′
⎛ θ⎞
Pointlike target w/o spin {KK} elastic
Mott = ⎜ cos2 ⎟
Mott scattering ⎝ 2⎠ p
⎛ 2θ
2
θ⎞
Pointlike target w/ spin {KK}elastic
eµ →eµ = ⎜
⎜ cos −
q
sin2 ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 2M 2 2⎠

⎛ GE + τ GM
2
θ2
θ⎞ q2
Extended proton w/ spin {KK}elastic
ep →ep = ⎜
⎜ cos2 − 2τ GM2 sin2 ⎟ mit τ =
⎝ 1+ τ 2 2 ⎟⎠ 4M 2

Size of the proton

Rosenbluth Plot:

dσ dσ θ
= A(q 2 ) + B(q 2 ) tan2
dΩ dΩ Mott 2

GE2 − τ GM2 q2
A(q 2 ) = mit τ =
1− τ 4M2
B(q 2 ) = - 2τ GM2

Allows the determination of

electric and magnetic form factors
(Sachs form factors)

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 GMp
Electric and magnetic form factors can be
described by dipole ansatz:

1
G(q 2 ) =
q2
(1 − )2
0.71 GeV 2
GEp
Dipole form factor is the Fourier
transform of an exponential distribution
→ radius of the charge (magnetic
moment) distribution:

dG
r2 = −6
dq 2 q 2 =0

GMn
1 1
rel2 2
= rmag
2 2
= 0.81⋅ 10−15 m

Electric and magnetic size of proton and

neutron are the same.

2.2 Inelastic ep scattering

r r
Event rate

k, E k ′, E ′
e

p Invariant Proton breaks up

mass W ← Q2
M Ehad
E’
Observation: Large cross section at large Q2
Inelastic scattering: M≠W From elastic form factor one expects large
2 independent variables: suppression at large Q2

• ν = E - E′ = Ehad – M
Elastic scattering: W=M
• q 2 = W 2 − M 2 − 2M ν = Q 2
only one free variable
Alternative: Bjorken-Variables
Q2
W =M ⇒ =1
Q 2
ν 2Mν
x= and y = Inelasti
2Mν E -city

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a) Differential cross section and structure functions
dσ α2 ⎛ θ q2 θ⎞
Elastic = ⋅ ⎜⎜ cos2 − sin2 ⎟⎟
dΩ 4E 2 sin4 θ ⎝ 2 2M 2
2⎠
eµ→eµ 2

dσ α2 ⎛ θ θ⎞
= ⋅ ⎜W2 (ν ,q 2 ) cos2 + 2W1(ν ,q 2 ) sin2 ⎟
dE ′dΩ 4E 2 sin4 θ ⎝ 2 2⎠
Inelastic 2

ep→eX dσ 4πα 2 E ′ ⎛ θ θ⎞
= ⋅ ⎜W2 (ν ,q 2 ) cos2 + 2W1(ν ,q 2 ) sin2 ⎟
dq dν
2
q4 E ⎝ 2 2⎠

With structure functions W1(ν,q2) and W2(ν,q2) .

Scattering at point-like objects:

− q2 q2 q2
2W1po int = 2
δ (ν + ) W2po int = δ (ν + )
2M 2M 2M

W1 and W2 functions of only one variable

b) First measurement of W2

SLAC & MIT

Experiment

Spectrometer at fixed θ
∆p
~ 0.1% ∆θ ~ 0.7mrad
p

e- beam, up to 20 GeV

∆p
∈ [0.1%; 0.25%]
p

Dipole and quadrupole

magnets

Cherenkov counter for

e/π separation

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Structure function νW2 does not depend
explicitly on Q2 but depends only on the
dimensionless variable x:

Q2
x=
2Mν
→ Scale invariance: “scaling”
Indicates elastic scattering at point-like
constituents of the proton: partons
Real sensation in 1970 …

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 The Nobel Prize in Physics 1990

Jerome I. Friedman Henry W. Kendall Richard E. Taylor

"for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of

electrons on protons and bound neutrons, which have been of essential
importance for the development of the quark model in particle physics"

c) Structure functions F1 and F2

Instead of W1 and W2 the structure functions F1 and F2 are used today:

Q2
νW2 (ν ,Q 2 ) → F2 ( x ) = νW2 ( x = )
2Mν
2 dimensionless
Q
MW1(ν ,Q 2 ) → F1( x ) = MW1( x = )
2Mν

dσ 4πα 2 E ′ ⎛ θ θ⎞
= ⋅ ⎜W2 (ν ,q 2 ) cos2 + 2W1(ν ,q 2 ) sin2 ⎟
dq dν
2
q4 E ⎝ 2 2⎠

dσ 4πα 2 E ′ ⎛ q2 θ 2ν q2 θ⎞
= ⋅ ⎜⎜ F2 ( ) cos2 + F1( ) sin2 ⎟⎟
dq dν
2
q Eν ⎝ 2Mν
4
2 M 2Mν 2⎠

dσ 4πα 2 E ′ F2 ( x ) ⎛ θ 2 xF1( x ) Q 2 θ⎞
2
= 4
⋅ ⎜⎜ cos2 + sin2 ⎟⎟
dQ dx Q E x ⎝ 2 F2 ( x ) 2M 2 x 2 2⎠

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2.3 Parton Model for electron-nucleon scattering: ep → eX

e e

qi

σ = incoherent sum of all possible parton (quark) contributions

1. Nucleon consists of quasi-free point-like constituents (partons)

2. Lepton scatters elastically on free spin ½ partons
3. Scattered parton interacts strongly with the other constituents
(spectators) to form observable hadrons

Infinite momentum frame – Bjorken x

Infinite momentum frame:

• Proton carries infinite momentum
pp q
(transverse mom. + mass of quarks
can be neglected)
P
• 4-mom fraction of parton: pp = xpP
p′p

Infinite momentum frame: Proton rest frame: Consequence of elast.

P = (M , 0 ) scattering:
pp + q = pp′ r
q = (ν , q ) − q2 − q2
x p P + q = pp′ 1= =
2xpMν 2mpν
pp2 + 2 x p Pq + q 2 = pp′2 Pq = M ν if formally mp = xpM

⇒ q 2 = −2 x p Pq − q2 Q2 Bjorken variable x =
= − 2 x pM ν
xp = = ≡x
2M ν 2M ν momentum fraction of parton

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