3.
Structure functions and quark distributions
Elastic electron-parton scattering:
Parton i, charge zi, mass mi, parton density fi(x)
Elastic scattering
dσ 4πα 2 E ′ 2 ⎛ θ Q2 θ⎞
= ⋅ zi ⋅ fi ( x )⎜⎜ cos2 + sin2 ⎟⎟ Q2 Q2
dQ 2 4
Q E ⎝ 2 2m 2
2⎠ 1= and x = ⇒ mi = xM
i
2miν 2Mν
Inelastic ep→eX scattering in parton model:
dσ 4πα 2 E ′ ⎛ θ Q2 θ⎞
2
= 4
⋅ ∑ zi2 ⋅ fi ( x )⎜⎜ cos2 + sin2 ⎟⎟
dQ dx Q E i ⎝ 2 2M 2 x 2 2⎠
Structure functions
Compared to the macroscopic expression:
dσ 4πα 2 E ′ F2 ( x ) ⎛ θ 2 xF1( x ) Q 2 θ⎞ F2(x) = x ⋅ ∑zi2fi (x)
2
= 4
⋅ ⎜⎜ cos2 + sin2 ⎟⎟ i
dQ dx Q E x ⎝ 2 F2 ( x ) 2M 2 x 2 2⎠
2xF1(x) = F2(x)
Proton
model F2 ( x )
1
3.1 Parton Spin
Callan-Gross relation 2 xF1
=1
for spin ½ partons F2
Proton constituents are spin ½ partons
e.g.: for spin 0 partons, sin2θ/2 term in
cross section disappears: F1(x)=0
3.2 Sea and valence quarks
Parton distribution function fi(x) = Probability to find parton with xi∈[x, x+dx]
Partons = Quarks and Gluons
u
u valence quarks
d
q sea quarks
q
Quark composition of the proton
uv + uv + dv + (us + us ) + (ds + ds ) + (ss + ss )
u(x), d(x) (anti) quark
Sea: Heavy quark contribution strongly suppressed densities of u and d
F2ep ( x )
= ∑ zi2 ⋅ fi ( x )
x i
4 1 1
= (u p ( x ) + u p ( x )) + (d p ( x ) + d p ( x )) + (s p ( x ) + s p ( x ))
9 9 9
2
Quark composition of the neutron
F2en ( x )
= ∑ zi2 ⋅ fi ( x )
x i
4 n 1 1
= (u ( x ) + u n ( x )) + (d n ( x ) + d n ( x )) + (s n ( x ) + s n ( x ))
9 9 9
F2en ( x ) 4
= (d ( x ) + d ( x )) + (u( x ) + u ( x ) + s( x ) + s ( x ))
1
x 9 9
Iso-spin symmetry
u n ( x) = d p ( x) = d ( x)
d n ( x ) = u p ( x ) = u( x )
In total 6 unknown quark distributions s n ( x ) = s p ( x ) = s( x )
q n ( x) = q p ( x) = q ( x)
Sum rules 1
∫ u ( x)dx = 2
0
v
1 valence
q( x ) = qv ( x ) + qs ( x )
∫ d ( x)dx = 1
v
q (x) = qs ( x ) 0
sea
1
∫ (qs ( x ) − qs ( x))dx = 0
0
For F2p and F2n the following relation
can be obtained (Nachtmann):
(d + d ) + (u + u + s + s )
4 1
1 F2en ( x ) 9 9
< ep = <4
(
4 F2 ( x ) 4 (u + u ) + 1 d + d + s + s
9 9
)
(for all x)
The ratio F2n / F2p allows to probe the
sea and valence quark contributions.
Valence quarks dominate
For x→0: Sea quarks dominate For x→0: (no momentum left for sea)
• Created by gluon splitting
F2en ( x ) u + 4dv 1
• Gluon spectrum ~1/x → v ≥
F2ep ( x ) 4uv + dv 4
F2en ( x )
→1
F2ep ( x ) Observation for protons:
use us ≈ ds ≈ ss ≈ us ≈ ds ≈ ss uv >> dv for x→ 1
3
Valence quarks
F2ep ( x ) 4
x
1
(
= (u + u ) + d + d + s + s
9 9
)
= [4uv + dv ] + S
1 4
9 3
F2en ( x ) 4
= (d + d ) + (u + u + s + s )
1
x 9 9
= [uv + 4dv ] + S
1 4
9 3
[
1 ep
x
]
F2 ( x ) − F2en ( x ) = [uv ( x ) − dv ( x )]
1
3
As uv >> dv:
uv – dv is a measure for
valence quark distribution Valence quarks mostly at large x
Sum of quark momentum
Scattering at an iso-scalar target: #p = #n (e.g. C, Ca)
F2eN =
2
[
1 ep
F2 + F2en =
5
18
] 1
x ⋅ [u + u + d + d ] + x ⋅ [s + s ]
9
5 5
≈ x ⋅ [u + u + d + d ] = [Sum of all quark momenta]
18 18
Small s quark distribution neglected
18 1 eN
5 ∫0
Naively one expects: ⋅ F2 ( x )dx ≈ 1
18 1 eN
5 ∫0
Experimental observation: ⋅ F2 ( x )dx ≈ 0.5
• probed quarks and anti-quarks carry only 50% of nucleon
momentum
• Remaining momentum carried by gluons (see later)
4
3.3 Neutrino nucleon scattering
νµ µ
ν µN → µ ± X
W
• More information on quark distribution N X
• Separation between quarks / anti-quarks
Q2 ν
QPM: x= y= ν = E − E′
2M ν E
νµ µ−
dσ (ν µ N → µ − X )
= d
→ Fiνp ( x ) and Fiνn ( x )
dy
u
νµ µ+
dσ (ν µ N → µ X ) +
= u → Fiν p ( x ) and Fiν n ( x )
dy
d
Structure functions for neutrino scattering
Fiν n = Fiν p
Equal because of Charge symmetry
Fiν p = Fiν n
1 νp 1
Fiν N = ( Fi + Fiν n ) = ( Fiν n + Fiν p ) = Fiν N for i = 1,2
2 2
F3ν N = − F3ν N Additional structure function to
account for parity violation
Double differential cross section: Scattering at iso-scalar target
d 2σ (νN,ν N ) G2 ⎡ y2 y ⎤
= 2ME F ⎢(1 − y )F2νN ( x ) + 2 xF1νN ( x ) ± y (1 − ) xF3νN ( x )⎥
dxdy 2π ⎣ 2 2 ⎦
4πα 2 G2 to account for
a F parity violation
Q 4
2π
5
Structure functions in QPM
1 νN
F1ν N = F2
2x
F2ν p = 2 x [d + u ] xF3ν p = 2 x [ d − u ]
F2ν n = 2 x [ d n + u n ] xF3ν n = 2 x [ d n − u n ]
= 2 x [u + d ] = 2 x [u − d ]
Iso-scalar F2ν N = x [u + u + d + d ] xF3ν N = x [( u + d ) − (u + d )]
target
F2ν N = x [Q ( x ) + Q ( x )] xF3ν N = x [Q ( x ) − Q ( x )]
Measures sum of Measures valence
quarks and anti-quarks quarks
Measurement: F2ν N + xF3ν N = 2 xQ ( x ) Sea and valence quarks
νN νN
F2 − xF3 = 2 xQ ( x ) Sea quarks
6
Parton distribution in eN and νN scattering
Question:
Do the parton distribution seen in electro-
magnetic (F2eN) and in weak interaction
(F2eN) agree ?
F2ν N ( x ) x [Q ( x ) + Q ( x )] 18
= =
F2eN ( x ) 5
⋅ x [Q ( x ) + Q ( x )] 5
18
Factor from fractional charge
Answer:
• e.m. and weak quark structure is the
same
• Factor 18/5 → fractional quark charge
Summary: eN and νN scattering
eN scattering
d 2σ eN 2πα 2
dxdy
=
Q 4
[
x 1 + (1 − y )2 ⋅
5
18
] [
Q( x ) + Q ( x ) ]
F2eN ( x ) =
5
18
[
x Q( x ) + Q ( x ) ]
ν N + ν N scattering
d 2σ νN GF2
dxdy 2π
= [
xs Q( x ) + (1 − y )2 ⋅ Q ( x ) ]
d 2σ ν N GF2
dxdy 2π
= [
xs Q( x ) + (1 − y )2 ⋅ Q ( x ) ]
[
F2νN ( x ) = x Q( x ) + Q ( x ) ] [
F3νN ( x ) = x Q( x ) − Q ( x ) ]
F2ν N ( x ) = x [Q( x ) + Q ( x )] F3ν N ( x ) = x [Q ( x ) − Q( x )]
7
Summary: nucleon structure
• Nucleons contain point-like constituents:
evidenced by approximate scale
invariance of the structure function F2(x)
• Constituents have spin 1/2: 2xF1≈F2
• Same quark distribution for e.m. and
weak interaction
But
• Quarks amount only to ~50% of nucleon
momentum → remainder carried by
gluons
• Logarithmic Q2 dependence of F2 for very
small/large x and large Q2 observed
Understood within perturbative QCD
4. Scaling-violation in deep-inelastic lepton-nucleon scattering
Scaling violation: F2,3 = F2,3(x, Q2)
8
Scaling violation in a qualitative QCD picture
Quarks q(x) probed by the photon have history:
z x z<x
Gluon-emission Gluon-absorption
z x
z>x
The smaller the wavelength of the probe (Q2 of the photon) the more
quantum fluctuations can be resolved :
Small Q2 Large Q2
2 effects:
Boson-gluon fusion
QCD Compton process
e
q(x) q(x) xP
zP
xP g(z)
q(z) zP
P
x<z<1
Increase of sea quarks will soften the valence quark distribution as Q2 increases
F2 will rise with Q2 at small x where the
sea quarks dominate and will fall with
Q2 at large x where valence quarks
dominate.
9
Quantitative description of scaling violation:
DGLAP evolution (Dokshitzer, Gribov, Lipatov, Altarelli, Parisi, 1972 – 1977)
of quark and gluon density functions q(x) and g(x) for large Q2:
evolution of quark
density with lnQ2 z
j z x i x i
Quark Gluon
density density
Splitting functions Pij and Pig
Probability that a parton j (quark or gluon) emits a parton i
with momentum fraction ε=x/z of the parent parton.
Evolution of gluon density
x
z x
z
Splitting functions are calculated as power series in αs up to a given order:
qq
αs
Pij (z,α s ) = Pij0 (z) + Pij1(z) + K
2π
10
In leading order: Pij (z,α s ) ≡ Pij (z)
0
4 1+ z2 4 1 + (1 − z )2
Pqq (z) = Pgq (z) =
3 1− z 3 z
z 2 + (1 − z)2 ⎛ z 1− z ⎞
Pqg (z) = Pgg (z) = 6⎜ + + z(1 − z) ⎟
2 ⎝ 1− z z ⎠
Deep-inelastic muon-nucleon
scattering: NMC Experiment
µ beam
Eµ=90, 120, 200, 280 GeV
F2p ( x,Q 2 ) F2n ( x,Q 2 )
11
Deep-inelastic electron
nucleon scattering:
H1 and ZEUS at HERA
e p
27.6 GeV 890 GeV
920 GeV
s ≈ 318 GeV
12
F2 ( x )
Large increase of F2(x) for
very small x: unexpected
F2 ( x,Q 2 )
Described by QCD evolution
13
Experimental determination of the gluon density
Using the DGLAP evolution eq. one finds for F2(x,Q2):
dF2 ( x,Q 2 ) α (Q 2 ) dz ⎡
1
x x 2 ⎤
= ∑ ei2 s ⋅∫ ⎢Pqq ( z )qi (z,Q ) + Pqg ( z )g (z,Q )⎥
2
d lnQ 2
i 2π x
z ⎣ ⎦
For small x (x<10-2):
quark pair production through gluon splitting dominant (1/x gluon spectrum):
x
→ Pqg ( )g (z,Q 2 ) dominant
z
As an approximation one finds:
27π dF ( x,Q 2 )
x ⋅ g ( x,Q 2 ) ≈ ⋅ 2
10α s (Q ) d lnQ 2
2
i.e. scaling violation of F2 at small x measures the gluon density.
Gluon density g(x,Q2):
In practice one makes a
global DGLAP fit to the
measured F2(x,Q2)
αs (MZ2) = 0.115
For larger Q2 one sees more and more gluons at small x
14