NUCLEI

Nucleus:
 The nucleus of an atom is at the centre. Most of the mass of an atom is at the centre. The
entire positive charge of an atom lies in the nucleus.
All atomic nuclei are made up of elementary particles called protons and neutrons. Proton
i s
the nucleus of the hydrogen atom. It has a
positive charge of 1.6 × 10–19 C having a mass of 1.6726 × 10-27 kg. This is nearly equal
to 1836 times the electron mass. Neutron is electrically neutral (i.e. neutron carries no
charge). Mass of neutron is slightly greater than that of the proton (1.6750 × 10-27 kg).
Both the proton and neutron together constitute the nucleus. They are called nucleons.
 Generally, atomic number is denoted by Z and mass number is denoted by A and (A-Z)
gives
number of neutrons (N) in the nucleus.
N  A  Z ; A = Z + N
 Nucleus is positively charged and its shape is
considered as spherical.
Types of Nuclei:
 Isotopes: Atomic nuclei having same atomic number but different mass numbers are
known as isotopes. They occupy same position in the periodic table and possess identical
chemical properties. They have same proton number.
Ex: 1) 3Li6, 3Li7 2) 1H1,1 H2,1 H3
 Isotones : Atomic nuclei having same number of neutrons are called isotones.
Ex.: 1) 17Cl37,19 K39 , 2) 7 N17 ,8 O18 ,9 F19
 Isobars: Atomic nuclei having same mass number but different atomic numbers are
called Isobars. They have same number of nucleons.
Ex.:1) 18Ar40,20 Ca40 , 2) 32 G e 7 6 ,3 4 S e 7 6
 Isomers: Atomic nuclei having same mass
number and same atomic number but different nulear properties are called isomers.
Ex:- m 35 Br 80 metastable Bromine and g35 Br 80 ground state Bromine are two isomers
with different half lives
 Isodiaphers : Nuclei having different Atomic number (Z) and mass number (A) but with
same excess number of neutrons over protons (A-2Z) are called isodiaphers.
23 27
Ex:- 11 Na , 13 Al
 Size of the Nucleus:
 Nuclear sizes are very small and are measured in fermi (or) femtometer. 1
fermi=10-15m
1
3
 Radius of the nucleus depends on number of nucleons. R  R0 A
above equation does not apply to heavy nucleides
Value of Ro = 1.4 x 10-15m
 Radius of the nucleus is in the order of 10-15 m.
 Size of an atom is in the order of 10-10m.
 If an  -particle with an initial kinetic energy E
approaches a target of atomic number Z, if the distance of closest approach is “d” then
1 2 e 2
 E (Where ‘e’ is charge of an electron) If “v” represents the initial velocity of
4  d

1 2 e 2 1 2
 particle, (m is mass of “  ” particle) then 4   mv
 d 2
Note : If a particle of charge q, mass m is projected towards a nucleus of charge Q with
1 qQ 1 2
velocity v from infinity then the distance of closest approach d is give by 4  d  2 mv


Note : If R, S and V be the Radius, surface area and volume of a nucleus with mass
number A then
1 2
1 2
R 1  A 1  3  A 3
 ; S  R  A 3  1   1 
2 S
R A3   
R2 A2   S 2  A 2 

V1 A
V  R3  A   1
V2 A 2
Note : If a stationary nucleus splits in to two lighter nuclei with mass numbers A1 and A2
then according to law of conservation of linear momentum, the two lighter nuclei move in
opposite directions with equal momenta hence m1v1 = m2v2
Ratio of velocities of the two nuclei

v1 m 2 A 2  R 2 
3

   
v 2 m1 A1  R 1 
Q m  A  R 3 
Ratio of kinetic energy of the two nuclei

KE1 m 2 A 2  R 2 
3

   
KE 2 m1 A1  R 1 
 2 
Q KE  p & KE  1 when p is constant 
 2m m 
 Density of the Nucleus:
 Density of nucleus is independent of mass number of the atom.
 Density of the nucleus is 1.45 x 1017 Kgm-3.
 The density is maximum at the centre and gradually falls to zero as we move radially out
wards.
 Radius of the nucleus is taken as the distance
between the centre and the point where the density falls to half of its value at the centre.
 Density of nucleus is of the order of 1014 gm / cc  1017 kg / m3
EX. 1: Compare the radii of the nuclei of mass numbers 27 and 64.
[Link] ratio of the radii of the nuclei is
1 1
R1  A1  3  27  3 3
=      (Q R = R0A1/3) =
R2  A2   64  4
16
EX. 2: The radius of the oxygen nucleus 8 O is 2.8 x 10-15m. Find the radius of lead
nucleus 205
82 Pb .

Sol. R0 = 2.8 x 10-15 m, A0 = 16, APb =205 R  A1/3

1/3 1/3
R0  A0  2.8 1015  16 
  =  
RPb  APb  RPb  205 
RPb = 6.55 x 10-15m.
Atomic Mass Unit (A.M.U):
i) The masses of atoms, nuclei, sub atomic particles are very small. Hence, a small unit is
used to express these masses. This unit is called as atomic mass unit (amu). 1 amu is
equal to one twelth part of the mass of carbon (6C12) isotope.
Mass of 6C12 is exactly 12 amu
ii) Now, the mass of 1 gm -mole of carbon is 12 gm and according to Avogadro’s Hypothesis
it has N (Avogadro’s Number) atoms. Thus, the mass of one atom of carbon is (12/N) gm.
According to the definition.
1
1amu  1u   mass of one carbon atom
12
1 12 1 1
   gm  gm
12 N N 6.0231023
 1.6605651024 gm  1.6605651027 Kg
 Mass - Energy Equivalence : According to Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence principle,
mass is another form of energy. Mass can be converted into energy & energy can be
converted into mass according to the equation E= mC2
Here m is the mass that disappears and E is the energy liberated. C is the velocity of light
in vacuum.
When 1 amu of mass is converted in to energy
Energy liberated is given by
E = (1.660565 x 10–27) x 9 x 1016 J= 931.5 MeV
hence 1 amu of mass is equivalent to 931.5 MeV of energy  1 amu = 931.5 MeV/C2
The masses of electron, proton and neutron in terms of various units are :
Mass of the electron = me = 9.1095 × 10-31 kg
= 0.000549 u = 0.511 MeV/C2
Mass of the proton = mp = 1.6726 × 10-27 kg
= 1.007276 u = 938.28 MeV/C2
Mass of the neutron = mn = 1.6750 × 10-27 kg
= 1.008665 u = 939.573 MeV/C2 .
Nuclear Forces:
The attractive force which holds the nucleons together in the nucleus is called nuclear
force.
Properties of nuclear forces :
1) Nu c lear fo r c es ar e s tr o n g es t fo r c es in n atu r e. Nuclear forces are about 1038 times as
strong as gravitational [Link] relative strengths of the gravitational, Coulomb's and
nuclear forces are
Fg : Fe : Fn  1:1036 :1038
2) Nuclear forces are short range forces .
3) Nuclear forces are basically strong attractive forces, but contain a small component
of repulsive forces.
4) Nuclear forces are saturated forces.
5) Nuclear forces are charge independent. 6) Nuclear forces are spin-dependent.
7) Nuclear forces are exchange forces. 8) Nuclear forces are non-central forces.

Mass defect, binding enegry, Einstein’s Mass energy Relation

 When matter is completely annihilated, energy released is E = mc2
 The energy equivalent to 1 amu is 931.5 M eV = 1.4925  1010 J .
Mass Defect:Atomic mass is always less than the sum of the masses of constituent particles. The
difference between the total mass of the nucleons and mass of the nucleus of an atom gives mass
defect.
m  ZMp  ( A  Z)Mn  Mnucleus
Z = Atomic number; Mp= Mass of proton
Mn = Mass of neutron; A=Mass number
M nucleus = Mass of nucleus.
 Binding Energy: The energy required to bring the nucleons from infinity to form the
nucleus is called binding energy or it is the energy required to split a nuclens into nucleons.
2
It is energy equivalent of mass defect BE= [  m]C
NOTE: BE = mass defect x 931.5 MeV if mass is expressed in a.m.u.
B.E. per nucleon= Binding fraction
Binding Energy m x 931 Mev
Mass Number = A
Averge Binding energy or Binding energy fraction: It is the Binding energy per nucleon
(or)
the average energy needed to separate a nuclei in to its individual nucleons.
 Binding energy is not a measure of stability of a nucleus.
Packing fraction of a Nucleus :
Packing fraction : It is defined as the mass defect per nucleon. Packing fraction
m M  A
= 
A A
If the packing fraction is negative then the nucleus is more stable.
If the packing fraction is positive then the nucleus is unstable.
Packing fraction is zero for 6 C 12
 Packing fraction measures the stability of a nucleus. Smaller the value of packing fraction,
large is the stability of the nucleus.
Variation of B.E. per nucleon With Mass Number
Binding energy per nucleon (Mev)

40 Fe 56 Region of
8.79ONeCa Greater stability
C
He 40  A  180
NF
7.6
Li

2
1 H
1
0 50 100 150 200 210
Mass number (A)
The main features of binding energy curve shown in figure are :
1) The minimum value of binding energy per nucleon is in the case of deuteron (1.11MeV).
BE
2) The maximum value of is 8.7MeV for the nucleus 28Fe56 (iron) which is the most
A
stable.
3) Binding energy is high in the range 28<A<138. The binding energy of these nuclei is very
close to 8.7 MeV.
4) Further increase in the mass number, binding energy per nucleon decreases and
consequently for the heavy nuclei like uranium it is 7.6 MeV.
5) In the region of smaller mass numbers, the binding energy per nucleon curve shows the
characteristic minima and maxima. Minima are associated with nuclei containing an odd
number of protons and neutrons such as 36 Li,10 14
5 B,7 N and the maxima are associated

with nuclei having an even number of protons and neutrons such as 42 He,12 16
6 C,8 O .

6) Nuclei with A > 220 are distinctly unstable. That means from A > 220 single heavy nucleus
breaks into two nearly equal nuclei with mass number A < 150 and so which are most
stable. This process takes at right of the BE curve as shown in figure . This process
explains the nuclear fission.
7) Light nuclei such as hydrogen combine to form heavy nucleus to form helium for greater
stability. This process takes at left of the BE curve as shown in figure. This process
explains the nuclear fusion.
Binding energy per nucleon (Mev)

Ene
rgy+
ergy +
En
+

Mass number (A)

Note : Iron  28 Fe56  whose binding energy per nucleon stands maximum at 8.7 MeV is most
stable and will undergo neither fission nor fusion.
Exo-ergic Reaction : The reaction in which energy will be released is
called exo-ergic Reaction. A+B  C+D+Q
Here A and B are called Reactants
C and D are called Products
Q is the amount of energy released
In an Exo - ergic Reaction
Mass of reactants > Mass of products
m  MR  MP  MA  MB  MC  MD 
Energy Released Q  m C2 joule [ m is in kg]
m931.5 MeV (  m is in amu)
If Binding energies are given then for Exo-ergic reactions.
(B.E) Products > (B.E) Reactants.
Energy released Q = (B.E)P – (B.E)R
= [(B.E)C + (B.E)D] – [(B.E)A + (B.E)B]
 Endo-ergic Reaction : The reaction in which energy will be absorbed is called Endo-
ergic Reaction. A + B  C + D – Q
Here A and B are called Reactants
C and D are called Products
Q is the amount of energy absorbed
In an Endo - ergic Reaction
mass of reactants < Mass of products
m  MP  MR  MC  MD   MA  MB 

Energy absorbed Q  m C2 joule [ m is in kg]

m931.5 MeV (  m is in amu)
If Binding energies are given then for
Endo-ergic reaction.
(B.E) Products < (B.E) Reactants.
Energy absorbed Q = (B.E)R – (B.E)P
= [(B.E)A + (B.E)B] – [(B.E)C + (B.E)D]
Note: A nuclear reaction can occur only if certain conservation laws are followed. These
are :
1. Conservation of mass number A.
2. Conservation of charge.
3. Conservation of energy, linear momentum and angular momentum.
EX. 3 : Find the binding energy of 2656 Fe . Atomic mass of Fe is 55.9349u and that of
Hydrogen is 1.00783u and mass of neutron is 1.00876u
[Link] of the hydrogen atom mH = 1.00783u; Mass of neutron mn = 1.00867 u; Atomic
number of iron Z = 26; mass number of iron A = 56; Mass of iron atom Ma = 55.9349u
Mass defect  m = [ZmH+(A-Z)mn] - Ma
= [ 26 x 1.00783+(56-20)1.00867]-55.93493
u = 0.5287 u.
 Binding energy = (m)c 2 = (0.52878 )
c2 = (0.52878)(931.5MeV) = 492.55 MeV
EX. 4 : Find the energy required to split 168O nucleus into four  - particles. The mass
of an  - particle is 4.002603u and that of oxygen is 15.994915u.
[Link] of a-particle = 4.002603 u
Mass of oxygen = 15.994915u
B.E= [Mass of 4 particles-Mass of oxygen] x 931.5MeV
B.E = [ 4 x 4.002603 - 15.994915] x 931.5 MeV =(16.010412-15.994915)x931.5MeV
= 0.015497 x 931.5 ; B.E = 14.43 MeV
EX. 5 : Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of 4020Ca. Given that mass of 4020Ca nucleus =
39.962589 u, mass of proton = 1.007825 u. mass of Neutron = 1.008665 u and 1 u is equivalent
to 931 MeV.
Sol. A =40, Z = 20, A -Z = 20

 m = Zm p   A  Z  mn   M n
= { (20 x 1.007825+(20x1.008665)} - 39.962589
= 40.329800 - 39.962589 ;  m = 0.3672111
Binding energy per nucleon =
m  931 0.367211 931
=  8.547 MeV .
A 40
EX. 6 : The binding energies per nucleon for deuterium and helium are 1.1 MeV and 7.0 MeV
respectively. What energy in joules will be liberated when 2 deuterons take part in the reaction.
Sol. 12 H  12 H  24 He  Q
Binding energy per nucleon of helium ( 24 He ) =7 MeV
Binding energy = 4 x7 = 28 MeV
Binding energy per nucleon of deuterium ( 12 H )=1.1MeV
Binding energy = 2 x 1.1 = 2.2 MeV
Energy liberated (Q) = (28 -(2.2)2] = 23.6 Mev.
i.e. Q=23.6x106x1.6x10-19; Q  37.76  1013 J
EX. 7: The kinetic energy of  -particles emitted in the decay of 88Ra226 into 86Rn222 is measured
to be 4.78 MeV. What is the total disintegration energy or the ‘Q-value of this process’ ?

Sol. The standard relation between the kinetic energy of the  -particle (KEa) and the Q-value (or total
disintegration energy) is
 A- 4   A 
KEa =   .Q Q=  .KEa
 A   A- 4 

 226  226
   4.78MeV   4.78MeV
 226  4  222
Q  4.865 MeV  4.87MeV
EX. 8: A nucleus X-initially at rest, undergoes alpha-decay, according to the equation.
A
92 X 228
z Y 
The α -particle in the above process is found to move in a circular track of radius 1.1102 m
in a uniform magnetic field of 3.0 103 T .
The energy (in MeV ) released during the process and binding energy of the parent nucleus
X, respectively.
Given: m y  228.03 amu ; m  4.003amu , m  10 n   1.009 amu ; m  10 H   1.008 amu ,
1 amu  1.66  1027 ; kg  931.5 MeV / c 2
 A
Sol: The given equation is 92 X 228
z Y  42 He
A  228  4  232 ; 92  z  2  z  90
m v2 rqB
 qv B ; v 
r m
1.1  102  2  1.6  1019  3  103

4.003  1.66  1027
 4.0 106 m / s
From conservation of linear momentum, m v  my v y

m v  4.003  4.0  10 
6

vy    7.0 104 m / s
my  228.03
1 1.66  1027 
There fore, energy released during the process   m v  my v y  
2 2

2  2 1.6 1013 
 4.003  4.0 106 2   228.03  7.0 104 2  MeV
 
0.34
 0.34 MeV  amu  0.000365amu
931.5
232
Therefore, mass of 92 X  m y  m  0.000365
 232.033365 u
Mass defect m  92 1.008    232  92 
1.009   232.033365 .
 Binding energy  1.962635  931.5 MeV
 1828.2 MeV
Natural radio activity :
Spontaneous decay of naturally occurring unstable nuclei by emission of certain
sub particles (like  ,  , and  radiation) is called natural radio activity..
The emission of these rays takes place because of the instability of the nucleus. In the
process of emitting these rays a nucleus tries to attain the stability.
In general natural radioactivity takes place in heavy nuclei beyond lead in the periodic
table. There are also naturally radioactive light nuclei, such as potassium isotope 19 K40 ,
the carbon isotope 6C14 and the rubidium isotope 37 Rb87 .
 Regarding radioactivity.
i) It is completely uneffected by the physical and chemical conditions to which the nucleus
is subjected i.e we cannot change the radio activity by applying high temperature, high pressure
and strong electric field etc.
ii) The nucleus can disintegrate immediately (or) it may take infinite time.
iii) The energy liberated during the radioactive decay comes from individual nuclei.
Modes of Decay:
The radioactive nucleus before decay is called a parent nucleus, the nucleus resulting from
its decay by particles (Radiation) emission is called daughter nuclei.
This daughter nuclei may be stable (or) unstable.
X 
 Y  R  Q
Parent Daughter Radiation Energy
Here R may be either  particle (or)  particle (or)  radiation. Q is the energy of the emitted
particles (or radiation).
 -decay : When a nucleus disintegrates by radiating  -rays, it is said to undergo  -decay.. An
 - particle is a helium nucleus. Thus a nucleus emitting an  particle losses two protons and two
neutrons, as a result its atomic number Z decreases by 2, the mass number A decreases by 4 and the
neutron number N decreases by 2.
A
zX  z  2 Y A  4  2 He 4  Q
226
Ex: 88 Ra 86 Rn 222  2 He 4  4.87MeV
Both electric charge and nucleon number are conserved in the process of  decay..
Application : When a stationary Radio active nucleus x decays into another nucleus y by emitting
an  -particle. x  y   particle Q
Applying LCLM if  particle moves forward with a momentum ‘P’ then daughter nucleus y
recoils with same momentum ‘P’ so that total momentum of the system is zero. Hence Py  P
The energy released ‘Q’ is in the form of K.E of daughter nucleus ‘y’ and ‘  ’ particle.
Q  KE y  KE
KE y M
Ratio of kinetic energies KE  M
 y

P2 1
(  KE  and KE  when ‘P’ is same)
2m m
KE y M KE  KE y M y  M
1  1 
KE My ; KE My
 M y 
KE   Q    M 
 M  M y  KE y  Q   
;  M  M y 

Notice that KE is very close to (but smallerthan) Q.

 -Decay : When a nucleus disintegrates by radiating   rays, it is said to undergo   decay..
i)  particles are nothing but electrons. Hence when a nucleus emits a  particle, the atomic number
(Z) increases by 1 unit, but the mass number does not change.
The general form of   decay can be written as

Z X A  Z1 Y A 1 e 0 .
Ex: 90 Th 234 91 Pa 234 1 e 0
Both electric charge and nucleon number are conserved in  decay also.
 -Decay: When a nucleus disintegrates by radiating   rays, it is said to undergo   decay..
Gamma rays are nothing but electromagnetic radiations of short wavelengths (not exceeding
10–10m.)
The emission of   rays from the nucleus does not alter either atomic number Z or mass number
A. It just results in the change of the energy state of a nucleus.
When a parent nucleus emits an  or a  particle, the daughter nucleus may be formed in one of
excited states. Such a nucleus will eventually comes to the ground state. In this process   radiation
will be emitted.

Z X A  Z X A   Photon( s)
87
Example: 38 *Sr  38 Sr 87   .

38 Sr is isomer of 38 Sr .
Note :When a Radio active nucleus emits an  - particle followed by two  - particles, its isotope is
formed.

A  2 
 Z 2Y A4 
Z X   Z X A4
Note :When a Radio active nucleus emits a  - particle its isobar is formed.

A 
 Z 1Y A
Z X 
Note: When a Radio active nucleus emits a  - particle its isomer is formed

A A 
Z X 
 Z X
 Deflection of Radioactive radiations in electric and magnetic fields :

 

E
B

   
  
 

Ra
Ra
Lead block

B
X X X X

X X X X

 
 
X X X X

Ra

Lead block

EX. 9: The nucleus 2310Ne decays by   emission. Write down the  -decay equation and determine
the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons emitted. Given that :
m (2310Ne) = 22.994466u; m(2311Na)=22.989770 u
_ _
Sol. 23
10 Ne 2311 Na  e v  Q
For   - decay, Q = [M(x) - M(y)]C2 = [22.994466-22.989770]931.5
= 0.004696 x 931.5 = 4.37 MeV
EX. 10: Calculate the binding energy of an  -particle. Given that mass of proton = 1.0073u,
mass of neutron = 1.0087u. and mass of  -particle = 4.0015u.
Sol. mP = 1.0073u, mN = 1.0087u, M = 4.0015u
N = A -Z =4 -2 =2 Q 2 He 4  Z X A 
B.E =  m x 931.5 MeV

 
=  Zm p  ( A  Z ) mn   M  931.5

  2  1.0073    2  1.0087   4.0015   931.5MeV

= 0.0305  931.5 MeV ; B.E = 28.4 MeV
EX. 11: How many  and  - particles are emitted when uranium nucleus (92U 238 ) decay to

82 Pb214 ?
Sol. Let n be the number of  - particles and m be the number of  - particles emitted.
238 214 4 0
U  82 Pb  n2 He  m 1e 
92

As mass is conserved, 238 = 214 + 4n + m (0)

= 214 + 4n ; 4n = 24; n = 6
As charge is conserved , 92 = 82 + 2n + m (-1)
10 = 2(6) - m Q n  6  ; m = 2.
 6 - particles and 2  - particles are emitted
Radioactive Decay Law:
Based on their experimental observations and analysis of certain radioactive materials Rutherford
and Soddy formulated a theory of radioactive decay. According to them
After decay of a nucleus the new product (daughter) of nucleus has totally different physical as
well as chemical properties.
The rate of radioactive decay (or) the number of nuclei decaying per unit time at any instant
is directly proportional to the number of nuclei (N) present at that instant and is independent
of the external physical conditions like temperature, pressure etc.
Let ‘N’ be the number of radioactive atoms present at a time ‘t’and N0 is the initial number of radio
active nuclei. Let dN atoms disintegrate in time ‘dt’. According to the law of radioactive decay
 dN   dN 
   N ;   = – N ....... (1)
dt dt 
The proportionality constant  is called decay constant (or) disintegration constant. The negative
sign indicates that as time increases N decreases.
dN
From eqn (1)   dt .......(2)
N
dN
Integrating eq (2) on both sides  N
   dt

log e N  t C ..... 3

Here C is the constant of integration
At t = O, N= N0 Substituting in eqn (3),
we get, loge N 0  C
 log e N  t  loge N 0 ;
 loge N  log e N 0  t
N N
 log e   t ; N  e ; N  N et ... (4)
 t

 N 0  0 0

This shows that the number of radioactive nuclei decreases exponentially with time.
Above equation is known as the decay law (or) the law of radio-active decay. It is an
exponential law.
N0
taking logarithm on both sides for the above equation. loge N = loge No - t ; t loge
N

1  N 0 
 t ln  
  N 

Nx Ny

No. of nuclei decayed

No. of nuclei left

N0 N0

O time O t
(a) (b)

In(N0)
In(N)

time(t)
(C)
Activity (R) :
The number of decays per unit time (or) decay rate is called activity (R)
dN d
| R |
dt

dt
 
N0 e t (or) R  N  N0 et (or)

R  R 0 e t , where R 0  N 0 is the decay rate at t = 0, called initial activity..

R
R0

If a nucleus can decay simultaneously by n processes, which have activities R1, R2, ........... and Rn.
Then the resultant activity R = R1 + R2 +............... + Rn. If nucleus decays simultaneously more
than one process is called parallel decay.
The S.I unit of activity is Becquerel (Bq) and other units are curie (Ci) and Rutherford (Rd).
1 Bq = 1 decay per second,
1 Rd = 106 decays per second.
1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 decays per second.
Note : Curie is approximately equal to the activity of one gram of pure radium.
 Decay Constant (  ) : It gives the ability of a nucleus to decay. The decay constant  for a given
radio active sample is defined as the reciprocal of the time during which the number of nuclei
1
decreases to times their original value.
e

N
N0
N0
e
0 1 t


1) Larger value of  corresponding to decay in smaller time and vice versa.

2)  = 0 for stable nuclei.
3) Decay constant is the characteristic of the sample taken and does not vary with time.
4) If a nucleus can decay simultaneously by more than one process (say n), which have decay constants
1,  2 ...........and  n , then the effective decay constant is   1   2  ..........   n . This is
called parallel decay.
Half life (T) : As the name suggests, the half life of a radioactive sample is defined as “The
time interval during which the activity of a radio active sample falls to half of its value, (or)
The time interval during which the number of radio active nuclei of a sample disintegrate to
half of its original number of nuclei” Half lives vary from isotope to isotope. While T may be
as small as 10-16 s, its largest value may be as big as 109 years.

Eg: Half-life of uranium  238

92
U is 4.47 x 109 years

half-life of krypton  8936 Kr is 3.16 minutes.

Relation between decay constant (  ) and half life period (T).
N t
From Law of Radioactive decay N  e
0

N0 1
when N = , t T   eT or 2  eT
2 2
taking logirthms on both sides ln 2  T
2.303log10 2 0.693
(or) loge 2  T  T  
 
ln 2 2.303log 2 0.693
 T=   


 The above relation establishes that the half - life (T) depends upon the decay constant  of the
radioactive substance. The value of  is different for different radioactive substances.
Note :
i) Half life is the characteristic property of the sample and T cannot be changed by any known method.
ii) At any given instant whatever be the amount of the undecayed sample, it will be reduced to
exactly half its value after a time equal to the half life of the sample.
1 1 1 1
iii) In parallel decay   1   2  ........ n hence    ........ , where T is the equivalent
T T1 T2 Tn
half-life and T1, T2 ...........Tn are the half-lives in individual decay.
Application :
In a radioactive sample the number of nuclides undecayed after n-half lives (i.e., t = nT) is
N n ln 2 1  N 0 
t = nT 
1
l n  0  or  ln  
  N     N 

N0  1 n
or 2 
n
; or N  N  
0
N  2 

Note: The number of nuclei remain in the sample after half of half life period (t=1/2T) is given
1
 1 n
N  N   here n  1 then N  N  1 2
0
by  2  0 2 
2

N0
 N taking N0 = 100, N = 50 2 = 70.7
2
70.7% of nuclei remain and 29.3% of nuclei decayed.

(N/ N0)
1
T Half life
0.5
0.25
0.125
0.0625
0 time
T 2T 3T 4T
Average life (or) Mean life :
The phenomenon of radioactivity is random because we just can’t predict which of the atoms in a
given sample will decay first and when. Hence radioactivity process totally depends on chance. In
decay process some of the atoms of the given sample may have very short life span, and others
may not decay even after a very large span of time. So to determine the ability of the nucleus to
decay it would be useful to calculate the average life. Hence average life is defined as the total
life time of all the nuclei divided by the total number of original nuclei.

i.e  
 life span of individual nucleus   t
Total number of original nuclei N0
Let N0 be the radio active nuclei that are present at t = 0 in the radioactive sample.
The number of nuclei which decay between t and (t + dt) is dN i.e the life time of these nuclei is ‘t’.
The total life time of these dN nuclei is (t dN)
t 

 The total life time of all the nuclei present initially in the sample =  tdN [Q N = 0 at infinity]
t 0

Average life time  =

 tdN But
dN
 N
N0 dt
dN = Ndt  N 0 e  t dt (Q N  N 0e t )

N 0 e t 1
  t dt ;  
0
N0 
The mean life (or) average life of a radio active sample is reciprocal to decay constant.
1
t 0  x
We know that N  N0 e ; When t   , N  N0 e  
 0.37N0  37% of N0
e
Hence average life period of a radio active sample can also be defined as “The time interval
during which 63% of sample decays or sample reduces to 37% of its original amount”.
Relation Between Half Life Period and Average Life Period
0.693 1
We know that T  & 
 
T
Hence T  0.693 (or)    1.443T
0.693
From the above equation it is clear that average life period is 44.3% greater than half life period.
R
R0

R0
2 R0
e
0 T  t
 Determination of decay constant   and half life period (T) of a radioactive sample graphically

If N0 and N be the number of atoms present undecayed initially and after a time t, then
We know that N=N0 e   t taking log on both sides
t
log e N  loge N 0 t  log N  log N 0 
2.303
  
log N   t  log N 0
 2.303 

Slope of the graph m   tan  
2.303
   2.303 tan 
2.303 log 2
Half life period T 

2.303 log 2
T  T  log 2 cot 
2.303 tan 
Note : In radioactive sample decay
N
1) The probability survival of nucleus after time Ps   e t .
N0

2) The probability of nucleus to disintegrate in time t is Pd  1  Ps  1  e t .

EX. 12: A radioactive sample has an activity of 5.13 x107 Ci. Express its activity in ‘becqueral’
and ‘rutherford’.
Sol. Since 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 decays per second,
activity = 5.13 x 107 Ci
=5.13 x 107 x 3.7 x 1010 Bq = 1.9 x 1018 Bq
Since , 1 x 106 decay per second = 1Rd
1.9  1018
Activity =1.9 x 1018 Bq = Rd = 1.9 x 1012 Rd.
1  106
EX. 13:A radioactive substance has 6.0 1018 active nuclei initially. What time is required for
the active nuclei of the same substance to become 1.0 1018 if its half-life is 40 s.
Sol. The number of active nuclei at any instant of time t,
N0
 e t N 
loge  0   t
N ;
 N 

N   N0 
log e  0  2.303log10  N 
t   N   
 
In this problem, the initial number of active nuclei,
18
N = 6.0  1018 ; N  1.0  10 , T  40 s,
0

0.693 0.693
   1.733  102 s 1.
T 40

 6.0  1018 
2.303log10 
 1.0  1018 
t  
2
1.733  10

2.303log10  6  2.303  0.7782

= 2
  103.4 s.
1.733  10 1.733  102
EX. 14: A radioactive sample can decay by two different processes. The half-life for the first
process is T1 and that for the second process is T2. Find the effective half-life T of the
radioactive sample.
dN1 dN 2
Sol. Let N be the total number of atoms of the radioactive sample initially. Let and
dt dt
be the initial rates of disintegrations of the radioactive sample by the two processes respectively.
dN1 dN 2
Then  1 N and  2 N
dt dt
Where  1 and  2 are the decay constants for the first and second processes respectively..
The initial rate of disintegrations of the radioactive
sample by both the processes
dN1 dN 2
=   1 N  2 N   1  2  N .
dt dt
If  is the effective decay constant of the radioactive sample , its initial rate of disintegration.
dN
 N
dt
 dN dN1 dN2
But  
dt dt dt
 N   1   N
    
0.693 0.693 0.693
 
T1 T2 T

1 1 1 TT
  ;T  1 2 .
T T1 T2 T1  T2
EX. 15: Plutonium decays with a half life of 24,000 years. If plutonium is stored for 72,000 years,
what fraction of it remains?
Sol. T1/2 = 24,000 years
Duration of time (t) = 72,000 years
t 72000
Number of half lifes (n) = T  3
1/2 24000
1 1 2 1 3 1
 1g  g   g   g
2 4 8
1
 Fraction of plutonium remains = g
8
EX. 16: A certain substance decays to 1/32 of its initial activity in 25 days. Calculate its half -life.
1 1 1 1 1
Sol. 1g 
1
 g 
2
 g 
3
 g 
4
 g 
5
 g n  5
2 4 8 16 32
t t 25
 n   t1/2  
t1/ 2 n 5 ; t1/2  5 days
EX. 17: The half -life period of a radioactive substance is 20 days. What is the time taken for 7/
8th of its original mass to disintegrate?
Sol. Let the initial mass be one unit.
7 1
Mass reamaining = 1  
8 8
1
A mass of 1 unit becomes unit in 1 half life
2
1 1
unit becomes unit in 2nd half life
2 4
1 1
unit becomes unit in 3rd half life
4 8
 Time taken = 3 half lifes = 3 x 20 = 60 days
 238
EX. 18: How many disintegrations per second will Occur in one gram of 92 U , if its half-life
against  -decay is 1.42 x 1017s?
0.693
Sol. Given Half -life period (T) = 

1.42  1017 s
0.693
  4.88  1018
1.42  1017
Avagadro number (N) = 6.023  1023 atoms
238 N
n = Number of atoms present in 1 g of 92 U
A
0.623 10 23
  25.30  1020
238
dN
Number of disintegrations =  n
dt
= 4.88 x10-18 x 25.30 x 1020 = 1.2346 x 104 disintegrates/sec
EX. 19: One gram of radium is reduced by 2 milligram in 5 years by  -decay. Calculate the half-
life of radium.
Sol: Initial mass = 1 g, t = 5 years
2
Reduced mass = 2mg = 2 x 10-3 g = g
1000
2 998
Remaining mass = 1 - 
1000 1000
N 998
 (Q Mass  Number of atoms)
N0 1000

N
 e  t ; 998  e  t
N0 1000
1000  1000 
 et  e5  log e    5
998  998 
2.303 (3.0000 -2.9991) = 5 
2.303  1  0.0009

5
0.693 0.693  5
(T1/2) =  = 1671.7 years
 2.303  0.0009
EX. 20: The half-life of a radioactive substance is 5000 years . In how many years, its activity will
decay to 0.2 times of its initial value? Given log105 = 0.6990.
Sol. T = 5000 years,
N 2 1

N 0 = 0.2 = 10 5
0.693 0.693
 
T 5000
N
 e t
N0

1 1 t
= t  5  e
5 e
loge5 = t
2.303  0.6990 = t
2.303  0.6990  5000
t
0.693
t = 11614.6years  1.1615 104 years
60
EX. 21: Obtain the amount of 27 Co necessary to provide a radioactive source of 8.0 mCi strength.
60
The half -life of 27 Co is 5.3 years.
Sol. Half - life of 60 27 Co = 5.3 years
= 5.3x365x24 x 60 x 60 S = 5.3 x 3.15 x 107 s
103 x x  103
Now `x` gm of 60
27 Co contains
k - mole =  6.025  1026
60 60
N = 0.1004x x 1023 = 1.004 x x 1022 atoms
Required strength of 60 27 Co = 8 m Ci
= 8 x 10-3 x 3.7 x1010 dis/s
We know that, decay rate (R) =  N
R 8  3.7  107
N 
 0.693 / T1/ 2

29.6  107
 x5.3x3.15x107 = 713.0909 x 1014
0.693
1.004x x 1022 = 713.0909 x 1014
x = 710.2499 x 10-8 kg = 7.1 x 10-6 g
 Artificial Transmutation of Elements
The conversion of one element into another by artificial means is called artificial
transmutation of the element. Rutherford performed number of experiments in which
the atoms of different stable elements, such as nitrogen, aluminium, phosphorus, etc,
were bombarded by high speed   particles from natural radioactive substances. Finally
in 1919, he discovered the phenomenon of artificial transmutation.

B A B
S
R F M

Fig.
The apparatus used by Rutherford is as shown in Fig.
i. It consists of a chamber A provided with an adjustable rod, carrying a radio - active
substance R (Radium C).
ii. The side of the glass tube facing ‘R’ is covered by metal plate with a central hole which is
closed by a thin silver foil ‘F’.
iii. A screen ‘S’, coated with a fluorescent material like zinc sulphide is arranged infront of
the silver foil and the scintillations produced on it can be observed through the microscope
‘M’.
iv. The side tubes B, B were used to fill various gases in the chamber.
v. The source of  - particles, Ra was placed on a small disc at R. Its distance from F was
adjustable.
vi. The radio-active substance emits  -particles whose range in air was found to be about
7cm.
vii. When the glass tube is filled with nitrogen gas, scintillations are observed, even when ‘R’
is at a distance of 40cm from the foil.
viii. These particles producing scintillations can not be  -particles as they can not have such
a long range.
ix. Rutherford concluded that nitrogen nucleus hit by an  (2He4)-particle transmutes into
oxygen nucleus along with a proton (1H1).
x. The nuclear reaction causing artificial transmutation can be represented as 7N14+ 2He4
 8O17 + 1H1
Thus an atom of nitrogen is transformed into an isotope of oxygen. This process is called
transmutation of elements.
* High energy  - particles were used in the discovery of artificial transmutation and
neutron because  - particles produce intense ionisation of the medium through which
they pass and can be stopped after travelling a few mm in air.
Significance :
i) It leads to the discovery of proton and neutron.
ii) It helps to produce radio isotopes.
iii) It helps to produce transuranic elements.
 Radio isotopes and their uses:
Radio isotopes have very short half lives and hence used for various purposes.
1) Medical applications :
27
a) 13 Al  0 n1 11 Na 24*  2 He4
Radio – sodium is used to find out how a given medicine is circulated in the body. It is also
used to find out circulatory disorders in blood vessels.
31
b) 15 P 1 H2 15 P32* 1 H1
Radio – phosphorus is used in the treatment of skin diseases. It is also used for the
treatment of blood disorders.
127
c) 53 I  0 n1 53 I128*    rays
Radio – iodine is used in the treatment of thyroid glands. Radio - iodine ( I131) is used for
diagnosis and treatment of brain tumor and for the study of pumping condition of heart.
59 1 60*
d) 27 Co  0 n 27 Co    rays Radio – cobalt is used in the detection and
treatment of cancer
e) Radio-iron is used to detect anemia and treat anemia.
2) In Geology:
a) Radio carbon(C14) is used to determine the age of fossils by radio - carbon dating
b) Radio isotopes are used to determine the age of rocks by the ratio of U 238 to Pb 206
3) In industry :
a) Radio – isotopes are used to find the wear and tear of machine parts
b) Radio isotopes are used to detect flaws in metal structures
c) Radio isotopes are used for treatment of alloys such as quenching , annealing and
hardening.
d) Radio isotopes are used in the selection of appropriate lubricants.
4) In research: Radio - isotopes are used in the study of nuclear disintegrations of elements.
5) In food preservation: By exposing vegetables and other food stuffs to radiations from
radio - active isotopes, their shelf life can be increased.
6) In agriculture:
a) Radio phosphorus (P32) is used to study the uptake of phosphorus by plants using.
b) Radio sulphur (S34) is used to study the transport ofminerals in plants .
c) Radio zinc is used to develop new species of plants by causing genetic mutation.
d) Irradiation by  - radiations of seeds to improve yields.
7) In Chemistry :
a) Radio oxygen (O18) is used to study the mechanisms of photosynthesis and hydrolysis of
ester
b) Radio isotopes are used in the chemical analysis of solubility of sparingly soluble salts
such as PbSO4 and AgCl and determination of trace amounts of elements in industrial
raw materials and products.
 Neutron
 It is electrically neutral and its mass is slightly greater than that of proton. It was discovered
by chadwick
 Bothe – Becker equation:
9 4 13
4 Be  2 He  6 C 6 C12  0 n1

 Neutron is unstable outside the nucleus.

1 1 0
0 n  1 H  1 e  
(anti neutrino)
 It has high penetrating power and low ionizing power.
 Slow moving neutrons are called thermal neutrons. Fast moving neutrons
convert into thermal neutrons when they pass through a substance called moderator.
 Thermal neutrons have an average energy of nearly 0.025 eV. Fast moving neutrons
have an average energy of 2 MeV.
Nuclear Fission
 Nuclear Fission is a nuclear reaction in which a heavy atomic nucleus like U235 splits into
two approximately equal parts, emitting neutrons and liberating large amount of energy.
 Bohr and Wheeler proposed liquid drop model to explain this fission process.
 Nucleus of U235 undergoes fission when it is struck by slow neutrons. This fission is not
due to the impact of neutron.
235
 Energy of about 200 MeV is released during one fission reaction of 92U . The most
probable nuclear fission reaction is
235 1 141 92 1
U + n  Ba + Kr +3 n +energy
92 0 56 36 235
0
There is no guarantee that U always breaks into Barium and Krypton.
 On an average,in the fission of U235, 2.5 neutrons are emitted per fission when fission
occurs due to slow neutrons. U235 undergoes fission with fast neutrons also. But this
probability is minimum.
 Fission fragments are unstable and emit neutrons some time after fission reaction which
are called “delayed neutrons”
 99% of neutrons emitted during fission process are prompt.
 Delayed neutrons play an important role in chain reaction
Chain Reaction:
 If the mass of fissionable material exceeds a
critical value, chain reaction or self propagating fission reaction takes place.
 The rate of reaction increases in geometric
progression during uncontrolled chain reaction.
 Chain-reaction : The process of continuation of nuclear fission which when once started
continues spontaneously without the supply of additional neutrons from outside is defined
as chain reaction.
 Reproduction factor (K): “It is the ratio of number of neutrons in any particular generation
to the number of neutrons in the preceeding generation.
Case(i): K<1 ; Chain reaction is not maintained.(sub-critical state)
Case (ii): K=1 : Chain reaction is maintained at steady rate. (critical state). In the state
electricity is produced in the reactors at steady rate
Case (iii): K>1 : Chain reaction becomes self sustained and lead to atomic explosion(super
critical state)
 Uncontrolled chain reaction takes place in atom bomb.
Nuclear Reactor or atomic pile:
 Nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear fission is produced by controlled self sustaining
chain reaction. And is used for the production of nuclear power (energy).
 The essential parts of a nuclear reactor are (i) the fuel, (ii) moderator, (iii) control rods, (iv)
coolant, (v) radiation shields.
235
 THE FUEL: The common fuels used are uranium U 238  , enriched uranium (U ) and
plutonium  Pu 236  and T h 2 3 2 .
Moderator:
 The function of a moderator is to slow down the fast moving neutrons to increase the rate
of fission.
 The commonly used moderators in the order of efficiency are (i) Heavy water (ii) graphite,
(iii) Berillium and Berillium Oxide
 Heavy water is a best moderator
 A good moderator should have
1) low atomic mass 2) poor absorption of neutrons
3) good scattering property.
4) The size of moderator atom should be nearly of same size as that of the size of a
prompt neutron.
Control Rods:
 The function of a control rod is to absorb (capture) the neutrons.
 Cadmium, Boron and steel rods are used as control rods in a nuclear reactor.
 Cadmium rods are best control rods
 They regulate the net rate of neutron production and hence they control the intensity of
fission process.
Coolant:
 The function of a coolant is to keep the reactor temperature at a low value so that there
may not be any danger of heat damage to the reactor.
 Air and CO2 are used as gaseous coolants. Water, Organic liquids, Helium, Liquid
Sodium are used as liquid coolants. Liquid sodium is best coolant.
 Protective shield: The process of preventing radioactive effect around nuclear reactor
is called Protective Shield.
 During the working of a nuclear reactor dangerous radiations such as high energy neutrons,
gamma rays and thermal radiations are produced. To protect the persons working there,
the reactor is thoroughly shielded with concrete wall of several feet thick and lined with
metals like lead.
 Power of A Nuclear Reactor
In the nuclear reactor, large amount of heat will be generated in the core. These reactors
have elaborate cooling systems that use water. This water absorbs the heat and produces
stea m. This steam in turn is used to run the steam turbines which ultimately generate
electric power. Such reactors are called power reactors.
nE n
The power generated by a nuclear reactor is P  here be the number of fissions
t t
per second and E be the energy released in each fission
E = 200 MeV  200106 1.61019 J
= 3.2 x 10-11J
n P
Note : Number of fissions per sec in a reactor of power 1 W is given by 
t E
1
 = 3.125 x 1010 fissions per sec
3.21011

Note : If only x% of energy released in fission is converted into electrical energy then out
x  nE 
put power of reactor is P   
100  t 
Note: If ‘x’gm of fuel with mass number ‘A’ completely undergo nuclear fission in time t
sec in a reactor then its power is given by
x
Number of moles in x gm of fuel =
A
x
Number of atoms (nuclei) present in x gm of fuel n    N A . Where NA is Avogadro
A
number
nE xN A E
 power P   P
t At
Uses of Nuclear Reactors:
1) To generate electric power.
2) To produce nuclear fuel plutonium -239 and other radioactive materials which have a
wide variety of applications in the fields of medicine, industry and research.
Uses of atomic energy :
1. Generation of electric power : The coolant in a nuclear reactor absorbs the heat
generated as a result of the chain reaction and it releases the heat to the water which is
converted into high pressure steam. This steam is used to drive turbine and operate the
electric generator.
2. Production of radio isotopes : A small amount of the pure element is placed in an
aluminium container and the container is placed in the reactor for a few days. The element
absorbs neutrons and the element becomes radioactive isotope.
127
53 I  0 n1 53 I128*   .
Radioiodine obtained in this way can be used to treat the thyroid gland. These radio
isotopes have a number of applications in the field of medicine , agriculture, industry and
basic research.
3. Source of neutrons : A large number of neutrons are produced in a reactor. They are
used in research . The effect of neutrons on biological tissues is studied. A new branch of
physics called Neutron Physics has come up.
4. Atomic energy is used to create artificial lakes, to divert the course of a river , to make
tunnels for laying new railway tracks etc.
5. Atomic energy is used for driving automobiles, submarines and war - planes.
6. Atomic energy is used in war - fare for creating destructive atom bombs and hydrogen
bombs.
Nuclear Fusion:
 The phenomenon in which two lighter nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus of mass
less than the total mass of the combining nuclei is called nuclear fusion. This mass
defect appears as energy.
 At temperatures of about 107K, light nuclei combine to give heavier nuclei. Hence, fusion
reactions are called thermo nuclear reactions.
 Nuclear fusion takes place in the sun and other stars.
 Energy produced in a single fission of 92U235 is larger than that in a single fusion of
Hydrogen into Helium.
 But fusion produces more energy than fission per nucleon.
 In fission, 0.09% of mass is converted into energy. In fusion 0.66% of mass is converted
into energy.
 Hydrogen bomb is a fission – fusion bomb.
Stellar and solar energy:
Stellar and solar energy is due to fusion.
The cycles that occur are. Proton - Proton Cycle & Carbon - Nitrogen Cycle
Proton - Proton Cycle:
The Thermonuclear reactions involved are:
1 1 2 0
2( H )+2( H )  2( H ) + 2( e ) + Q1
1 1 1 +1
21H 2
  2 1 H 1
  2 2 He   Q2
3

3 3 4 2
He + He  ( He ) + 2( H ) + Q3
2 2 2 1
On adding up these reactions, we obtain.
1 4 0
4( H )  He + 2 e + Q
1 2 +1
Where Q  Q1Q2 Q3 is the total energy evolved in the fusion of 4 hydrogen nuclei (protons)
to form Helium nucleus. The value of Q as calculated from mass defect comes out to be
26.7MeV
 Carbon - Nitrogen Cycle:
Proposed by bethe. It consists of following reactions.
13 13 0
6 C 12 1 H 1  7 N 13  Q1 ; N  C +( e )+ Q2
7 6 1
13 1 14
6 C 1 H  7 N  Q3 ; 7 N 1 H 8 O15  Q4
14 1

15 15 0
O  N +( e )+ Q5 ;
8 7 +1
15
7N 1 H 1  6 C 12  2 He 4  Q6
On adding all these 6 equations, we get
1 4 0
4 H  He + 2( e )+ Q
1 2 +1
Where Q  Q1Q2 Q3Q4Q5Q6 The value of Q as calculated from mass defect is 26.7
Mev.
 In the sun both proton - proton cycle and
carbon- nitrogen cycles occur with equal
probabilities. In stars, whose interior temperatures are less than that of the sun, proton -proton
cycle dominates the energy generation. Again in stars, whose interior temperatures are more
than that of the sun, the energy generation is mainly due to carbon- nitrogen cycle.
 The core temperature of heavier stars may be larger than that of the sun and much larger
nuclei may be formed.
NOTE: Due to enormous energy released in Sun and Stars the atmosphere of them will
be in ionised state which is called Plasma (Which contains fast moving neutrons and
electrons). Nuclear fusion can not be controlled.
Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
1) Neutrons are required 1) Protons are required
for it for it
2) It is possible at normal 2) It is possible at high
pressure and temperature pressure and temperature
3) Energy released per 3) Energy released per
nucleon  0.9Mev nucleon  6Mev
4) % of mass getting 4) % of m ass getting
converted into energy converted into energy
=0.1% =0.7%
5) Fissionable materials 5) Fusion materials
are expensive are cheap
6) Harmful reactions 6) Harmful reactions
are produced are not produced
EX. 22: An explosion of atomic bomb releases an energy of 7.6 x 1013 J. If 200 MeV energy is released
on fission of one 235 U atom calculate (i) the number of uranium atoms undergoing fission. (ii) the
mass of uranium used in the atom bomb
Sol:E=7.6x103J;Energy released per fission = 200 MeV
= 200  106  1.6 x 10-19 = 3.2 x 10-111 J
Total energy
Number of uranium atoms (n) =
Energy per fission

7.6  1013
n 11
= 2.375  1024 atoms
3.2  10
Avagadro number (N) = 6.023×1023atoms
Mass of uranium =
n × 235 2.375 × 1024 × 235
= = 92.66g
N 6.023 × 1023
EX. 23: Calculate the energy released by fission from 2 g of 23592U in kWh. Given that the energy
released per fission is 200 MeV.
Sol. Mass of uranium = 2g
Energy released per fission = 200 MeV
= 200 x 106 x 1.6 x 10-19 = 3.2 x 10-11 J
Number of atoms in 2 gram of uranium is
2  6.023  1023
n = 5.125  1021 atoms
235
Total energy released = No. of atoms x energ released per fission
= 5.125 x 1021 x 3.2 x 10-11 = 16.4  1010J

 Energy in Kwh =
16.4  1010
Kwh
36  105
= 0.455  105 Kwh = 4.55  104 Kwh
EX. 24: 200 Mev energy is released when one nucleus of 235U undergoes fission. Find the number
of fissions per second required for producing a power of 1 megawatt.
Sol. Energy released = 200MeV
= 200 x 106 x 1.6 x 10-19 = 3.2 x 10-11J
P = 1 mega watt = 106 watts.
Total energy
[Link] fissions per second (n)= Energy per fission

106
n= 11
 3.125  1016 Fissions
3.2  10
EX. 25: How much 235U is consumed in a day in an atomic power house operating at 400 MW,
provided the whole of mass235U is converted into energy?
Sol. Power = 400 MW = 400 x 106 W;
time = 1 day = 86, 400 s.
Energy produced , E = power  time = 400  106  86,400 = 3.456  1013 J.
As the whole of mass is converted into energy , by Einstein's mass -energy relation.
E = Mc2
E 3.456  1013
2
 8 2
 3.84  104 kg  0.384 g.
c (3  10 )
EX. 26: How long can an electric lamp of 100W be kept glowing by fusion of 2.0 kg of deuterium
? Take the fusion reaction as 21H+21H  32He+n+3.27 MeV
Sol. 1 H 2 1 H 2 32 He  n  3.27 MeV
No. of atoms in 2 kg of 1H2 = 2/2 x 6.023 x 1026
= 6.023 x 1026 atoms
In the above reaction two deuterium nuclei are combined
Power (p) = w x rate of fusion.
Number of atoms
= 3.27 MeV x Time exp ended

6.023  1026
100 = 3.27 x 106 x 1.6 x 10-19 x
2x
3.27  1.6  6.023  1011
x  = 15.756 x 10111S
2
15.756  1011 15.756  1011
= = =5x104 years
365  24  60  60 3.15  107
EX. 27: Suppose India had a target of producing by 2020 AD, 200,000 MW of electric power, ten
percent of which was to be obtained from nuclear power plants. Suppose we are given that,
on an avedrage, the efficiency of utilization ( i.e conversion to electric energy) of thermal
energy produced in a reactor was 25%. How much amount of fissionable uranium would our
country need per year by 2020 ? Take the heat energy per fission of 235U to be about 200 MeV.
Sol. Required power from nuclear plants
= 10% of 2,00,000 Mw = 2 x 1010w
Required electric energy from nuclear plants in one year = 2 x 1010 x 365 x24 x 60 x 60
= 2 x 1010 x 3.15 x 107 = 6.30 x107 J
Available electric energy per fission = 25% of 200 MeV = 50 MeV = 8 x 10-12J
6.30  1017
Req. no. of fissions per year = =0.7875x1029
8  10  12

0.7875 1029
Req. no. of moles of U238 = 23 =0.1307 x10
6
6.023  10
 Required mass of U238 = 0.1307 x 235 x106 g
= 30.71 x106 gm = 30.71 x106 x 10-3 kg
= 0.03071 x 106 kg = 3.071 x 104 kg
EX. 28: Calculate the energy released by the fission 1 g of 235U in joule, given that the energy
released per fission is 200 MeV.
( Avogadro’s number = 6.023  1023 )
Sol. The number of atoms in 1 g of 235U
Avogadro ' s number 6.023  1023
= =  2.563  10 21
Mass number 235
Energy released per fission = 200 MeV
= 200  106  1.6  10 19  3.2  10 11 J .
Energy released by 1 g of 235U
= Number of atoms  energy released per fission
= 2.563 1021  3.2  10 11 J  8.202  1010 J
EX. 29: In the process of nuclear fission of 1 gram uranium, the mass lost is 0.92 milligram. The
efficiency of power house run by it is 10%. To obtain 400 megawatt power from the power
house, how much uranium will be required per hour? (c = 3 x 108 ms–1)
Sol. Power to be obtained from power house = 400 mega watt\ Energy obtained per hour = 400 meagwatt
x 1hour = (400 x 106 watt) x 3600 second = 144 x 1010 joule
Here only 10% of input is utilised. In order to obtain 144 x 1010 joule of useful energy, the output
10 E
energy from the power house = 144 x 1010 J
100
E = 144 x 1011 joule
Let, this energy is obtained from a mass–loss of  m kg.
Then  m  c 2  144  1011 joule
144  1011
m   16  105 kg = 0.16 g
8 2
 3 10 
Since 0.92 milli gram (= 0.92 x 10–3 g) mass is lost in 1 g uranium, hence for a mass loss of 0.16g,
1 0.16
the uranium required is   174 g
0.92 103
Thus to run the power house, 174 gm uranium is required per hour.
PAIR AND PRODUCTION AND PAIR ANNIHILATION : When an energetic  - photon
falls on a heavy nucleus, it is absorbed by the nucleus and a pair of electron and positon
is produced. This phenomenon is called as pair production and can be represented by
the following equation:
hv  1 β0  1 β0
 γ  photon   Positron   electron 
0
+1

  photon
Heavy nucleus 10
The rest mass energy of electron or positron is:
2
E0  m0c 2   9.1  10    3  10 
31 8

 8.2  1014 J ; 0.51MeV .

Hence for pair production, the minimum energy of  -photon must be 2  0.51  1.02MeV .
If the energy of  -photon is less than this, there may be Compton’s effect. If energy of  -
photon is greater than E0 , then extra energy will become kinetic energy of the particles.
If E is the energy of  -photon, then kineric energy of each particle will be,
E  2 E0
K electron  K positron 
2
The inverse process of pair production is called pair annihilation. According to it when
electron and a positron come close to each other, annihilate each other and produces
minimum two  -photons.
Thus

1 β0  1 β0  2hf
 Positron   γ  photon 
 electron 

+10

2 (   photon )
0
1
 Additional information
Elementary particles :
We have realized, so far that there are only four fundamental constituents of matter. We
can describe various physical processes involving atoms, molecules and nuclei in terms
of electrons, protons, neutrons and photons. The first three are the building blocks of
atoms and hence matter. The fourth one (i.e photon) is the quantized energy which is
exchanged whenever electronic or nucleonic transition is involved.
Subsequently many more elementary particles and antiparticles have been discovered,
using giant and modern accelerating machines.
The particles which are not constituted by any other particles are called Elementary
particles. A brief discussion of important fundamental particles is as follows.
i) Electron : It was discovered in 1897 by Thomson. Its charge is –e and mass is 9.1 X 10–
31kg. Its symbol is e– (or 1  0 ). It is a stable particle having spin = 1/2
ii) Proton : It was discovered in 1919 by Rutherford in artificial nuclear disintegration. It has
a positive charge +e and its mass is 1836 times (1.673 X 10–27kg) the mass of electron.
In free state, the proton is a stable particle. Its symbol is P+. It is also written as 1 H 1 . It is
a stable particle having spin = 1/2.
iii) Neutron : It was discovered in 1932 by Chadwick. Electrically it is a neutral particle. Its
mass is 1839 times (1.675 X 10–27 kg) the mass of electron. In free state the neutron is
unstable. Inside the nucleus the neutron is stable. Its symbol is n (or) 0 n1 .
iv) Positron : It was discovered by Anderson in 1932. It is the antiparticle of electron, i.e., its
charge is +e and its mass is equal to that of electron. Its symbol is e+ (or 1  0 )
v) Antiproton : It is the antiparticle of proton. It was discovered in 1955. Its charge is –e and
its mass is equal to that of proton. Its symbol is P–.
vi) Antineutron : It was discovered in 1956. It has no charge and its mass is equal to the
mass of neutron. The only difference between neutron and antineutron is that their
magnetic momenta will be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. The symbol
for antineutron is n .
vii) Neutrino and antineutrino : The existence of these particles was predicted in 1930 by
Pauli while explaining the emission of  - particles from radioactive nuclei, but these
particles were actually observed experimentally in 1956. Their rest mass and charge are
both zero but they have energy and momentum. These are mutually antiparticles of each
other. They have the symbol  and 
viii) Pi - Mesons : The existence of pi - mesons was predicted by Yukawa in 1935, but they
were actually discovered in 1947 in cosmic rays. Nuclear forces are explained by the
exchange of pi-mesons between the nucleons. pi - mesons are of three types, positive 
- mesons   , negative pi-mesons   and neutral  - mesons   . Charge on   is
  0

 e. Whereas mass of   is 274 times the mass of electron.  0 has mass nearly 264
times the electronic mass. These are unstable having half life 10–8 sec and spin = 0
ix) Mu-Mesons : These were discovered in 1936 by Anderson and Neddermeyer. These are
found in abundance in the cosmic rays at the ground level. There are two types of mu-
mesons. Positive mu-meson    and negative mu-meason   . There is no neutral
mu-meson. Both the mu-mesons have the same rest mass 207 times the rest mass of
the electron. These are unstable having half life 10–6 sec and spin = 1/2.
x) Photon : These are bundles of electromagnetic energy and travel with the speed of light.
h
Energy and momentum of a photon of frequency  are h and respectively. They
c
posses no charge. no mass and spin = 1 and are stable.
xi) Gravitons : Hypothetical particles that carry gravitational energy are called Gravitons.
They possess no mass, no charge and spin = 2 as proposed by Dirac.
Antiparticles :An antiparticle is a form of matter that has the same mass as the particle
but carries an opposite charge and / or a magnetic moment that is oriented in an opposite
direction relative to the spin.
Name of the particle Antiparticle
Electron (e-1) Positron (e+1)
Proton(P )+ Anti proton (P-)
Neutron (n) Anti Neutron ( n )
Neutrino (v) Anti Neutrino ( v )
Positive Pi-Meson (   ) Negative Pi-Meson(   )
Positive Mu-Meson(   ) Negative Mu-Meson(   )
Note: A few electrically neutral particles, like the photon and neutral  meson are their
own antiparticles. A collision between a particle and an antiparticle results in annihilation
of matter.
Classification of particles based on spin
1) Bosons : These particles have spin in the integral multiples of unity
2) Fermions : These particles have spin in the integral multiples of 1/2.
Classification of particles based on rest mass
1) Photons : Particles with zero rest mass
2) Leptons : Lighter particles
3) Mesons : Particles with intermediate mass
4) Baryons : Heavier particles
Classification of particles based on interaction
1) Photons: representing electromagnetic interactions.
2) Leptons: representing weak interactions.
3) Hadrons: representing strong interactions.
4) Gravitons: representing gravitational interactions.
EX. 30: An electron-positron pair is produced when a  -ray photon of energy 2.36MeV passes
close to a heavy nucleus. Find the kinetic energy carried by each particle produced, as well
as the total energy with each.
Sol. The reaction is represented by
  ( 1 e0 )  ( 1 e0 ), sothat
2
E  m0C 2  K .E electron + m0C  K .E positron 2.36MeV = 2m0.C2  K.E (electron) + K.E (positron)
= 1.02 MeV + K .E(e)  K .E(e )

 1
K.E. of (e )  K .E(e )  (2.36 1.02) MeV ,
2
(K.E. carried each) = 0.67 MeV (motional energy)
Total energy shared by each particle is obviously m0C 2  K.E  0.51MeV  0.67MeV = 1.18MeV..
EX. 31: A gamma ray photon of energy 1896 MeV annihilates to produce a proton-antiproton
pair. If the rest mass of each of the particles involved be 1.007276 a.m.u approximately, find
how much K.E these will carry?
Sol. Working on the same lines as an electron-positron pair production, we notice that the reaction.  
proton + antiproton, has the energy balance
E = m0 (proton) C2 + K.E (proton) +
m0 (antiproton)C2 + K.E (antiproton)
But m0C2 = energy equivalent of 1.007276 a.m.u  938 MeV. [Q 1.007276 x 931  938 MeV]
Thus K.E of each particle
1
= [1896 MeV - 2 × 938 MeV] = 10MeV..
2
EX. 32: Obtain the maximum kinetic energy of  -particles, and the radiation frequencies of 
decays in the decay scheme shown in Fig. 14.6. You are given that
m(198Au) = 197.968233 u; m(198Hg) = 197.966760 u
198
79 Au


1 Page 24 Table 2

2 1.088Mev

1 3
0.412Mev
2
0
198
80 Hg
 E
Sol.  -rays are electro magnetic radiations having energy E = h    = where h = plank`s
h
constant = 6.625 x 10-34 J.S
1) Frequencies of  1 ,  2 and  3 are calculated as follows

E (1.088  0) MeV 1.088  106  1.6  1019

1   
h 6.625  1034 J .s 6.625  1034
= 0.2627 x 1021 = 2.627 x 1020 Hz
E (0.412  0)MeV 0.412 1.6 1019 106
2   
h 6.625 1034 J .s 6.625 1034
= 0.0995 x1021 = 9.95 x 1019Hz
E (1.088  0.412)  106  1.6  1019
3  
h 6.625  1034
= 0.1632 x 1021 = 1.632 x 1020 Hz
2) Now maximum K.E of 1 = [M(19879Au)
1.088 2
M(19880Hg)- ]c
931.5
1
(Q 1 amu = 931.5 MeV  1MeV = U )
931.5
= [197.968233-197.966760-0.001168]931.5 MeV
= 0.000305 x 931.5 = 0.284 MeV
Maximum K.E of  2  =
0.412 2
[M(19879Au) - M(19880Hg) - ]c
931.5
= [197.968233-197.966760-0.000442]931.5
= 0.001031 x 931.5 =0.9603 MeV
EX. 33 A radioactive isotope is being produced at a constant rate A. The isotope has a half -life
T initially there are no nuclei, after a time t >>T, the number of nuclei becomes constant. The
value of this constant is
A AT
1) AT 2) ln  2  3) AT ln  2  4)
T ln  2 
A AT
Sol. key(4) A  N ;  N  
 In2

EX. 34 The probability of survival of a radioactive nucleus for one mean life is

1 1 ln 2 ln 2
1) 2) 1  3) 4) 1 
e e e e
Sol. key(1) Probability of survival for any nucleus at time t is
N N 0e  λt
P   e  λt
N0 N0
1
 λ
λ
1
So, in one mean life, required probability is e  ;
e
EX. 35 The fraction f of radioactive element decayed change with respect to time (t). The curve
representing the correct variation is

1) f 2) f

O t O t

f f
3) 4)

O t O t

Sol. key(3)
EX. 36 The rate of decay (R) of nuclei in a radiocative sample is plotted against time (t). Which
of the following best represents the resulting curve?

1) R 2) R

O t O t

R R
3) 4)

O t O t

Sol. key(1)

EX. 37 A sample of uranium is a mixture of three isotopes 92 U 234 , 92U 235 and 92U 238 present in
the ratio 0.006%, 0.71% and 99.284% respectively. The half lives of then isotopes are 2.5 x
105 years, 7.1 x 108 years and 4.5 x 109 years respectively. The contribution to activity (in %)
of each isotope in the sample respectively
1) 51.41%, 2.13%, 46.46%
2) 51.41%, 46.46%, 2.13%
3) 2.13%,51.41%, 46.46%
4) 46.46%, 2.13%, 51.41%

Sol. key(1) Let m is the total mass of the uranium mixture. The masses of the isotopes 92 U 234 ,
0.006
92U
235
and 92U 238 in the mixture are m1  m ;
100
0.71 99.284
m2  m , and m3  m.
100 100
m1 N A
If N A is the Avogadro number, then number of atoms of threeisotopes are; N1  ,
M1
m2 N A m3 N A
N2  , and N 3 
M2 M3
Activity of radioactive sample A  λN .
0.693 0.693
As λ  A N
t1/ 2 ,  t1/ 2
 If t1 , t2 and t3 be the half lives, then
N1 N 2 N 3
A1 : A2 : A3  : :
t1 t2 t3
m m m
or A1 : A2 : A3  1 : 2 : 3
M 1t1 M 2t2 M 3t3
0.006 0.71 99.284
 : :
234  2.5  10 5  235  7.5  10 8  238  4.5  10 9 

 51.41% : 2.13% : 46.46%

EX. 38 Binding energy per nucleon versas mass number curve for nuclei is shown in the fig.
W,X,Y and Z are four nuclei indicated on the curve. The process that would release energy is
Binding energy per nucleon Mev

8.5 Y
8.0 X
7.5
W

5.0
Z

0 30 60 90 120
Mass Number of nuclei

1) Y  2Z 2) W  X  Z
3) X  Y  Z 4) W  2Y

Sol. .key(4) Energy of products must be more then the reactants to release energy.

EX. 39 A small quantity of a solution containing N24 radio - nuclide of half - life T and activity R0
is injected into blood of a person. 1cm3 of sample of blood taken from the blood of the person
shows activity R1. If the total volume of the blood in the body of the person is V, find the
timer after which sample is taken.
T  R0  T  VR0 
1) 1 n  2) 1 n 
ln(2)  VR1  ln(2)  R1 

T  VR1  T  R1 
3) 1 n  4) 1 n 
ln(2)  R0  ln(2)  VR0 
Sol. . key(1) Total volume of blood,
Total activity R
V
Activity per cm3  R1 
R0e t VR1
 , (or)  e  t
R1 R0

 VR  ln(2)t T  R 
 ln  1   t  ;t ln  0 
 R0  T ln(2)  VR1 
EX. 40 A nucleus with mass number 220 initially at rest emits an  - particle. If the Q value of
the reaction is 5.5 MeV, calculate the kinetic energy of  -particle.
1) 4.4 MeV2) 5.4 MeV 3) 5.6MeV 4) 6.5 MeV
Sol. .key(2) K1  K 2  5.5 MeV
From conservation of linear momentum

 2 K1 (216m)1/ 2   2 K 2 (4m)1/ 2 ; K 2  54 K1
From the above K 2  5.4 MeV

EX. 41 Some amount of radioactive substance (half-life=10 days) is spread inside a room and
consequently the level of radiation becomes 50times the permissible level for normal occupancy
of the room. The room be safe for occupation after
1) 20days 2) 34.8 days 3) 56.4 days 4) 62.9 days

Sol. .key(3) Since the intial activity is 50 times the activity for safe occupancy, therefore,
R0  50 R where R   N since,

RN n t /T
R N 1 1
    
R0 N 0  2   2  or
t /10
1 1
  
2 50
EX. 42 The fraction of a radiactive sample will decay during half of its half-life period is
1 1 2 1 1
1) 2) 3) 4)
2 2 1 2 2
t
n
N 1  1 T T t 1
Sol. .key(3)       Here, t  or 
N0  2  2 2 T 2
1
N  1 2 1 N0  N  1  1  2  1
   ;
N0  2  2 N0 2 2
EX. 43 In moon rock sample the ratio of the number of stable argon-40 atoms present to the
number of radioactive potassium-40 atoms is 7:1. Assume that all the argon atoms were
produced by the decay of potassium atoms, with a half-life of 2.5  109 yr. The age of the rock
is
1) 2.5  109 yr 2) 5.0 109 yr
3) 7.5 109 yr 4) 1010 yr
Sol. .key(3) Let the number of radioactive Potassium atoms present initially (t=0) is N 0 and the
number of stable argon atoms at t=0 is zero. After time t the number of stable argon atoms is m and
the radioactive potassium atoms is N 0  m given that
N0  m 1 7 1
 , m  N 0 and N 0  m  N 0
m 7 8 8
since after one half-life N 0 reduces to N0/2 after 2 half-lives N0/4 and after 3 half-lives it reduces to N0/8

t  nT  3  2.5 109 years

Thus,
 7.5 109 year
EX. 44 The half-life of a radioactive sample is T. If the activities of the sample at time t1 adn t2 (
t1 < t2) are R1 and R2 respec tively, then the number of atoms disintegrated in time t2  t1 is
proportional to
1)  R1  R2  T 2)  R1  R2  T
R1 R2 R1  R2
3) R  R T 4)
1 2 T
Sol. .key(1) Activity R   N

R1  N1 and R2  N2

0.6931
R1  R2    N1  N2    N1  N2 
T
so that
N1  N2 
 R1  R2  T
0.6931

N1  N 2   R1  R2  T ;  t2  t1  R1  R2  T
EX. 45 The half life of a radioactive substance is 20 [Link] approximate time interval
 t2  t1  between the time t2 , when 2/3 of it has decayed and time t1 and 1/3 of it had decayed
is
1) 14 minutes 2) 20 minutes
3) 28 minutes 4) 7 minutes

Sol. . key(2) 2 1 1 1
A t t1  t1 / 20 ; At t2  t2 / 20
3 2 3 2
t2-t1= 20 mins.
EX. 46 A charged capactor of capacitance C is discharged through a resistance R. A radio active
sample decays with an average life t. Find R interms of C and t in order that the ratio of the
electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor to the activity of the radio active sample remains
constant with time
2t C
1) 2) 3) 2t C 4) t C
C 2t

1 2 1
Uc CVo CV 2
Sol. key(1)  constant; 2 2
A  No N
1
Where V  Voe  t / CR , N  N o e t and  
t
EX. 47 A radioactive sample can decay by two differentprocesses. The half-life for the first
process is T1 and that for the second process is T2 . The effective half-life T of the radioactive
sample is
1 1 1
1) T  T1  T2 2) T  T  T
1 2

T1  T2 T1  T2
3) T  T T 4) T  T T
1 2 1 2

  1  2
dN
Sol. . key(2)  N ; 1
dt 
T
EX. 48 In nuclear fusion,One gram hydrogen is converted into [Link] the efficiency of the
generator be 5%,then the energy obtained in KWH is
1) 8.75  103 2) 4.75  103 3) 5.75  103 4) 3.73  103

output
Sol. key(1). Efficency =
mc 2
EX. 49 A photon of energy 1.12 Mev splits into electron positron pair. The velocity of electron
is (Neglect relativistic correction)
1) 3 x 108 ms-1 2) 1.33 x 108 ms-1
3) 6 x 108ms-1 4) 9 x 108ms-1

1 
.Sol. key(2) E   mv 2  2  2 E0
2 
EX. 50. A sample of radioactive material has mass m, decay constant  and molecular weight M.
Avagadr o constant = N A . The activity of the sample after time t will be

 mN A   t  mN A   t
1)  e 2)  e
 M   M 
 mN A   t m
3) 
 M 
e 4)

1 e  
 t

N Am
Sol. key(2). activity =  N o e t where No 
M
EX. 51 Samples of two radioactive nuclides A and B are taken.  A and  B are the
disintegration the following cases, the two samples can simultaneously have the same decay
rate at any time?
1) Initial rate of decay of A is twice the initial rate of decay of B and  A   B
2) Initial rate of decay of A is twice the initial rate of decay of B and  A   B
3) Initial rate of decay of B is twice the initial rate of decay of A and  A   B
4) Initial rate of decay of B is same as the rate of decay of A at t = 2h and  B   A
dN
Sol. key(2).  rate of decay   N
dt
(1) t  0
 
N0 A  2 N0B  N0 A  2 N0B
A B
dN
  A N A   AA N 0 Ae  At  2 A N 0 Ae  At
dt A

dN
  B N B   B N 0 B e  At
dt B

Q  A  B
dN dN

dt A dt B

(2)  A N 0 A  2 B N 0 B   A   B 
at t  t
dN
  N 0 e  t
dt
  If equal :  A N 0 Ae   t   B N 0 B e   t
A B

2  e
 A   B t
 A  B   t
can have real solution.
(3) Proceed similar to (2) twill have no real soltion.
(4)  B  N 0 B   A N 0 Ae 2  A

N 0 B  N 0 Ae 2  A
at some t  t , if equal rates occur
 B N 0 Be   t   A N 0 Ae   At
B

N0BeBt  AN0 AeAt  A  B 

N 0 B e   At  N 0 B e 2  Ae   At

 e 2  A  1 not possible.
EX. 52. The variation of decay rate of two radioactive samples A and B with time is shown
in figure. Which of the following statements are true?
dN
dt

t
1) Decay constant of A is greater than that of B, hence A always decays faster than B.
2) Decay constant of B is greater than that of A but its decay rate is always smaller than that of A.
3) Decay constant of A is greater than that of B but it does not always decay faster than B.
4) Decay constant of B is smaller than that of A, but still its decay rate becomes equal to that of A
at a later instant.

dN d 2N
Sol. key (3, 4).   N 0 e  t  2
  2 N 0e  t
dt dt
at instant when
dN dN
 ,  slope A   slope B
dt A dt B
  A  B.
EX. 53. Which sample A or B shown in figure has shorter mean-life?
dN
dt
A

t
1)  B   A 2)  B   A
3)  B   A 4) Nothing can be concluded

dN dN
Sol. key(1). at t  0 ; dt 
A dt B

d 2N d 2N
but dt 2   B   A   A   A
B
dt 2 A

ADVANCED MAIN POINTS

Q-Value of Energy of a Reaction :
Consider the nuclear reaction a  x  y  b; where a - bombarding particle x - Target
nucleus y - daughter nucleus b - emitted particle. Let m1 , m2 , m3 and m4 be the masses of
a, x, y & b respectively and k1 , k2 , k3 and k4 be their KEs. From principle of conservation of
energy
m1c 2  k1  m2c 2  k2  m3c 2  k3  m3c 2  k4 or
 m1  m2    m3  m4   c 2   k3  k4    k1  k2 
The Q-Values is
 k3  k4    k1  k2    m1  m2    m3  m4   c2
Q-Values of various decays:-
A
a) For  -decay; Z X  ZA42Y  24 He

Q   m  X   m
A
Z
A 4
Z 2  
Y  m 2 He 4  c 2 
A
b) For  1 -decay; Z X  ZA1Y  01e  v
Q   m  Z 
X A m  Z 1 
Y A  c 2
A
c) For   -decay; Z X  ZA1Y  01e  v

Q   m  Z 
XA m  Z 1 
Y A  2me  C 2
 A
d) For K-capture; Z X  01e  ZA1Y  v

Q   m  Z 
XA m  Z 1 
Y A  c 2

Types of nuclear collisions:-

Exoergic reaction / collision :
i) If Q - value is positive, rest mass energy is converted into kinetic mass energy, radiation or
both.
ii) In  -emision, kinetic energy of the emitted
 A  4
 - particle   A  Q
Where A is the mass number of parent nucleus and Q is the Q- value of the reaction.
iii) In   - decay process, the energy Q is shared by the anti-neutirinos and the beta particle.
The Kinetic Energy of the beta particle can be anything between zero and a maximum
value Q.
Endoergic Collision / Reaction:
i) If Q is negative, the reaction is endoergic.
ii) Some minimum energy called threshold energy is required to intitiate the nuclear reaction.
m 
Eth  Q  1  1 . Where m is the mass of the bombarding particle and m is the mass of
 m2  1 2

the target nucleus. The threshold energy is some what greater than Q because the
outgoing particles must have some kinetic energy to conserve momentum.
Radioactivity law for different types of disintegration.
 dN
a. Only disintegration:-   N  N  N 0 e  t
dt
b. Disintegration with continuous production:-

    B  stable
formation rate decay
 q
 A 
dN 1
  N  q  N   q    N 0  q  e  t 
dt 
Successive Disintegration
A parent nucleus may decays into a daughter nucleus, which may decay into another daughter
nucleus and so on. Such decay is called successive disintegration or series decay. The
chain stops only when the end product is stable.
c. For successive disintegration of the products:
decay decay
A 1
 B 
2
 C  stable
dN A
For A   1 N A  N A  N 0e  1t
dt
dN B
For B   1N A  2 N B
dt
N 01
 NB   e  1t  e  2t 
 2  1
dN C
For C  2 N B .
dt
  2e  1t 1e 2t 
N c  N 0 1   
   2  1    2  1  
If ‘C’ is the final stable product, then the decay and recovery curves for the substances A,
B and C are as shown
N
N0
no. of atoms

A
B C

time
O
At peak of B, the rate of formation of B = rate of disintegration of B. Hence 1 N A   2 N B .
If ‘C’ is also an unstable product, then the decay and recovery curves for the substances
A,B and C are as shown
N
N0
A
no. of atoms

B C

time
O
Also, N0 = NA + NB + NC; at t = 0, NB =0 ;
at 0  t   ; N B  increases

 1   2 
at t      ln   ; N B = maximum
 2  1   1 
at   t  ; N B  decreases to zero

Permanent or Secular Equlibrium

If half lives TA, TB of the species A and B are such that TA >> TB i.e parent nuclei has longer
half life, then their decay constants obey 1   2 .
Let us choose, TA   and TB  0

1  0 and so 2  1  2

1 0 N   2t
then N B   1  e 
2

For  2 be large e   2t  0
hence N B  2  N 01
i.e Thus B is in permanent of secular equlibrium with A (parent)
N
N0

B
A

O t

Transient Equlibrium
If the parent is long-lifed compared to daughter but half-life of the parent not very large i.e
TA  TB Then 1   2 , but 1  0.

NB 1  e 2t 
For N     1  e  1t 
A 2 1  

After sufficiently long time e   2t becomes negligible compared to e   2t .

NB 1
So that N      constant
A 2 1
  After sufficient time, the ratio of parent atom to daughter atom become constant and
both eventually decay with same half life. This is known as transient equilibrium
N
N0
A

1
N0
 2  1
B
t
O
Note : It is to be noted that if the parent has shorter half-life than that of the daughter
 1  2  , no state of equilibrium is attained
d. Simultaneous disintegration of parent nuclei:-
B
1

2
C
 eff  1   2 or
1 1 1 TT
   Teff  1 2
Teff T1 T2 T1  T2
Where T1 and T2 are the respective half lifes
e. Radioactive equilibrium:
After a period of time, successive daughter nucleus decays at the same rate as it is
formed. The situation is called radioactive equilibrium.
 A N A   B N B  C N C  ......
 Nuclei
(Jee main previous year questions)

Topic 1: Composition and Size of the Nuclei

1. The radius 𝑹 of a nucleus of mass number 𝑨 can be estimated by the formula 𝑹 =

(𝟏. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟓 )𝑨𝟏/𝟑 𝐦. It follows that the mass density of a nucleus is of the order of:

(𝑴𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐭 . ≅ 𝑴𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐭 . = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝐤𝐠)

[Sep. 03, 2020 (II)]

(a) 𝟏𝟎𝟑 kg 𝐦−𝟑 (b) 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 kg 𝐦−𝟑

(c) 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝐤𝐠𝐦−𝟑 (d) 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 kg 𝐦−𝟑

Mass mA
SOL. (d) Density of nucleus,   
Volume 4
 R3
3
mA
p (𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝐴1/3 )
  R0 A1/3 
4 3

Here m = mass of a nucleon

3 1.67 1027
 (Given, 𝑅0 = 1.3 × 10−15 )
4  3.14  1.3 10 
15 3

⇒ p = 2.38 × 1017 kg/m3

2. The ratio of the mass densities of nuclei 𝐨𝐟 𝟒𝟎 𝐂𝐚 and O 16 is close to :

[8 April 2019 II]

(a) 1 (b) 𝟎. 𝟏 (c) 5 (d) 2

SOL. (a) Nuclear density is independent of atomic number.

3. An unstable heavy nucleus at rest breaks into two nuclei which move away with velocities in

the ratio of 8:27. The ratio of the radii of the nuclei (assumed to be spherical) is:
 [Online Apri1 15, 2018]

(a) 8: 27 (b) 2: 3 (c) 3: 2 (d) 4: 9

SOL. (c) Let heavy nucleus breaks into two nuclei of mass 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 and move away with velocities

𝑉1 and 𝑉2 respectively.
V1 8
According to question, 
V2 27

𝑚1 𝑉1 = 𝑚2 𝑉2 (Law of momentum conservation)

m1 V2 27
⇒  
m2 V1 8

4
p   R13
3 mass
(⋅.⋅ density p = volume)
4
p   R23
3
1 1
3
 R   27  3  3  3 R1 3
⇒  1     
 R2   8   2  R2 2

4. Which of the following are the constituents of the nucleus?

[2007]

(a) Electrons and protons (b) Neutrons and protons

(c) Electrons and neutrons (d) Neutrons and positrons

SOL. (b)

5. If radius of the Al1327 nucleus is estimated to be 𝟑. 𝟔 fermi then the radius of Te52
125
nucleus

be nearly

[2005]

(a) 8 fermi (b) 6 fermi (c) 5 fermi (d) 4 fermi

SOL. (b) Radius of a nucleus,

𝑅 = 𝑅0 (𝐴)1/3

Here, 𝑅0 is a constant

𝐴 = atomic mass number

 1/3
R1  A1 
1/3
 27  3
    
R2  A2   125  5

5
⇒ 𝑅2 = 3 × 3.6 = 6 fermi

Topic 2: Mass-Energy Equivalence and Nuclear Reactions

6. You are given that mass of Li37 = 𝟕. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟎𝐮, Mass of He24 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟔𝐮 and Mass of H11

= 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟗𝐮. When 20 𝐠 of Li37 is converted into He24 by proton capture, the energy

liberated, (in 𝐤𝐖𝐡), is: [Mass of nucleon = 𝟏𝐆𝐞𝐕/𝐜 𝟐]

[Sep. 06, 2020 (𝐃]

(a) 𝟒. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 (b) 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 (c) 𝟔. 𝟖𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 (d) 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔

SOL. (d) 7
3 Li  H11  2  He42 

𝛥𝑚 → [𝑚Li + 𝑚H ] − 2[𝑀He ]

Energy released = 𝛥𝑚𝑐 2

mc 2
In use of l g Li energy released 
mLi
mc 2
In use of 20 g energy released   20g
mLi
[(7.016 + 1.0079) − 2 × 4.0026]𝑢 × 𝑐 2
= × 20g
7.016 × 1.6 × 10−24
= 480 × 1010 J

1J = 2.778 × 10−7 kWh

Energy released = 480 × 1010 × 2.778 × 10−7

= 1.33 × 106 kWh

7. Given the masses of various atomic particles 𝐦𝐩 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟐𝐮, 𝐦𝐧 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟕𝐮, 𝐦𝐞 =

𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟒𝟖𝐮, 𝐦−
𝐯 = 𝟎, 𝐦𝐝 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟏𝟒𝟏𝐮, where 𝐩 ≡ proton, 𝐧 ≡ neutron, 𝐞 ≡ electron,

𝐯 ≡ antineutrino and 𝐝 ≡ deuteron. Which of the following process is allowed by

 momentum and energy conservation?

[Sep. 06, 2020 (II)]

(a) 𝐧 + 𝐧 → deuterium atom (electron bound to the nucleus)

(b) 𝐩 → 𝐧 + 𝐞+ + 𝐯

(c) 𝐧 + 𝐩 → 𝐝 + 𝜸

(d) 𝐞+ + 𝐞 → 𝜸

SOL. (c) For the momentum and energy conservation, mass defect (𝛥𝑚) should be positive. Since

some energy is lost in every process.

(𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑛 ) > 𝑚𝑑

8. 120
Find the Binding energy per nucleon for Sn50 . Mass of proton 𝒎𝒑 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟖𝟑𝐔, mass of

neutron 𝒎𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟔𝟕 U and mass of tin nucleus 𝒎𝐒𝐧 = 𝟏𝟏𝟗. 𝟗𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟗𝟗 U. (take

𝟏𝐔 = 𝟗𝟑𝟏𝐌𝐞𝐕)

[Sep. 04, 2020 (II)]

(a) 𝟕. 𝟓𝐌𝐞𝐕 (b) 𝟗. 𝟎𝐌𝐞𝐕 (c) 𝟖. 𝟎𝐌𝐞𝐕 (d) 𝟖. 𝟓𝐌𝐞𝐕

SOL. (d) Mass defect,

𝛥𝑚 = (50𝑚𝑝 + 70𝑚𝑛 ) − (𝑚𝑠𝑛 )

= (50 × 1.00783 + 70 × 1.008) − (119.902199)

= 1.096

Binding energy = (𝛥𝑚)𝐶 2 = (𝛥𝑚) × 931 = 1020.56

Bindingenergy 1020.5631
= = 8.5MeV
Nuc1eon 120
9. In a reactor, 2 kg 𝐨𝐟 𝟗𝟐 𝐔𝟐𝟑𝟓 fuel is fully used up in 30 days. The energy released per fission

is 200 𝐌𝐞𝐕. Given that the Avogadro number, 𝐍 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟔 per kilo mole and 1

𝐞𝐕 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 J. The power output of the reactor is close to:

[Sep. 02, 2020 (I)]

(a) 35 MW (b) 60 MW (c) 125 MW (d) 54 MW

SOL. (b) Power output of the reactor,

 energy
𝑃=
time
2 6.023 × 1026 × 200 × 1.6 × 10−19
= × = 60MW
235 30 × 24 × 60 × 60
10. Consider the nuclear fission

𝐍𝐞𝟐𝟎 → 𝟐𝐇𝐞𝟒 + 𝐂 𝟏𝟐

Given that the binding energy/nucleon of Ne20 , 𝐇𝐞𝟒 and 𝐂 𝟏𝟐 are, respectively, 𝟖. 𝟎𝟑𝐌𝐞𝐕,

𝟕. 𝟎𝟕𝐌𝐞𝐕 and 𝟕. 𝟖𝟔𝐌𝐞𝐕, 𝐢𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝖍𝜸 the correct statement:

[10 Jan. 2019 II]

(a) energy of 𝟏𝟐. 𝟒 𝐌𝐞𝐕 will be supplied

(b) 𝟖. 𝟑 𝐌𝐞𝐕 energy will be released

(c) energy of 𝟑. 𝟔𝐌𝐞𝐕 will be released

(d) energy of 𝟏𝟏. 𝟗𝐌𝐞𝐕 has to be supplied

SOL. (d)

11. Imagine that a reactor converts all given mass into energy and that it operates at a power

level of 109 watt. The mass of the fuel consumed per hour in the reactor will be : (velocity of

light, 𝐜 is 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦/𝐬)

[Online April 9, 2017]

(a) 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔 𝒈𝒎 (b) 𝟎. 𝟖 gm (c) 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 gm (d) 𝟔. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 gm

E mc2
SOL. (c) Power level of reactor, P  
t t
mass of the fuel consumed per hour in the reactor,
𝛥m P 109
= 2= = 4 × 10−2 gm
𝛥t c (3 × 108 ) 2

12. Two deuterons undergo nuclear fusion to form a Helium nucleus. Energy released in this

process is : (given binding energy per nucleon for deuteron = 𝟏. 𝟏𝐌𝐞𝐕 and for helium=

𝟕. 𝟎𝐌𝐞𝐕)

[Online April 8, 2017]

(a) 𝟑𝟎. 𝟐𝐌𝐞𝐕 (b) 𝟑𝟐. 𝟒𝐌𝐞𝐕 (c) 𝟐𝟑. 𝟔𝐌𝐞𝐕 (d) 𝟐𝟓. 𝟖𝐌𝐞𝐕
SOL. (c) H 2 + H 2 → He4

Total binding energy of two deuterium nuclei = 1.1 × 4 = 4.4MeV

Binding energy of a (2 He4) nuclei = 4 × 7 = 28MeV

Energy released in this process = 28 − 4.4 = 23.6MeV

13. When Uranium is bombarded with neutrons, it undergoes fission. The fission reaction can be

written as:

U92235  n01  Ba56

141
 Kr3692  3x  Q (energy)

where three particles named 𝒙 are produced and energy 𝐐 is released. What is the name of

the particle 𝒙 ?

[Online April 9, 2013]

(a) electron (b) 𝜶‐particle (c) neutron (d) neutrino

SOL. (c) Nuclear fission equation

U92235  n01  Ba56

141
 Kr3692  3n01  Q (energy)

Hence particle x is neutron.

14. Assume that a neutron breaks into a proton and an electron. The energy released during this

process is: (mass of neutron = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝐤𝐠, mass of proton = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 kg,

mass of electron = 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝐤𝐠).

[2012]

(a) 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝐌𝐞𝐕 (b) 𝟕. 𝟏𝟎𝐌𝐞𝐕 (c) 𝟔. 𝟑𝟎𝐌𝐞𝐕 (d) 𝟓. 𝟒𝐌𝐞𝐕

SOL. (a) n01  H11  1 e0  v  Q

The mass defect during the process

𝛥𝑚 = 𝑚𝑛 − 𝑚𝐻 − 𝑚𝑒 = 1.6725 × 10−27

−(1.6725 × 10−27 + 9 × 10−31 kg)

= −9 × 10−31 kg

The energy released during the process 𝐸 = 𝛥mc 2

 𝐸 = 9 × 10−31 × 9 × 1016 = 81 × 10−15 Joules

8.1 × 10−15
𝐸= = 0.511MeV
16 × 10−19
15. Ionisation energy of Li (Lithium) atom in ground state is 𝟓. 𝟒𝐞𝐕. Binding energy of an

electron in 𝐋𝐢+ ion in ground state is 𝟕𝟓. 𝟔 𝐞𝐕. Energy required to remove all three

electrons of Lithium (Li) atom is

[Online May 19, 2012]

(a) 𝟖𝟏. 𝟎𝐞𝐕 (b) 𝟏𝟑𝟓. 𝟒𝐞𝐕 (c) 𝟐𝟎𝟑. 𝟒𝐞𝐕 (d) 𝟏𝟓𝟔. 𝟔𝐞𝐕

SOL. (d)

16. After absorbing a slowly moving neutron of mass 𝒎𝐍 (momentum ≈ 𝟎) a nucleus of mass

𝐌 breaks into two nuclei of masses 𝒎𝟏 and 𝟓𝒎𝟏 (𝟔𝒎𝟏 = 𝐌 + 𝒎𝐍 ) respectively. If the de

Broglie wavelength of the nucleus with mass 𝒎𝟏 is 𝝀, the de Broglie wavelength of the

nucleus will be [2011]

(a) 𝟓𝝀 (b) 𝝀/𝟓 (c) 𝝀 (d) 𝟐𝟓𝝀

16. (c) Initial momentum of system, 𝑝𝑗 = 0

Let 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 be the momentum ofbroken nuclei ofmasses 𝑚1 and 5𝑚1 respectively.

𝑝𝑓 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2

From the conservation of momentum

𝑝𝑖 = 𝑝𝑓

0 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2

𝑝1 = −𝑝2

From de Broglie relation, wavelength

h h
1  and 2 
p1 p2

|𝜆1 | = |𝜆2 |

𝜆1 = 𝜆2 = 𝜆.

DIRECTIONS: Questions number 17‐18 are based on the following paragraph.

 M
A nucleus of mass 𝑴 + 𝜟𝐦 is at rest and decays into two daughter nuclei of equal mass
2
each. Speed oflight is 𝒄.

[2010]

17. The binding energy per nucleon for the parent nucleus is 𝑬𝟏 and that for the daughter

nuclei is 𝑬𝟐 . Then

(a) E2  2 E1 (b) 𝑬𝟏 > 𝑬𝟐 (c) 𝑬𝟐 > 𝑬𝟏 (d) 𝑬𝟏 = 𝟐𝑬𝟐

SOL. (c) In nuclear fission, the binding energy per nucleon of daughter nuclei is always greater than the

parent nucleus.

18. The speed of daughter nuclei is

m 2m m m
(a) c (b) c (c) c (d) c
M  m M M M  m
  M M 
SOL. (b) Mass defect, M   M  m      
  2 2 
= [𝑀 + 𝛥𝑚 − 𝑀] = 𝛥𝑚

Energy released, Q = 𝛥𝑀𝑐 2 = 𝛥𝑚𝑐 2 -----(i)

From the law of conservation of momentum

𝑀 𝑀
(𝑀 + 𝛥𝑚) × 0 = 𝑣1 − × 𝑣2
2 2
⇒ 𝑣1 = 𝑣2

Now,
1M  2 1M  2 1
Q   v1    v2   M  m    0 
2

2 2  2 2  2
M 2
 v1 .  v1  v2  -------(ii)
2
From equation (i) and (ii), we get
M  2
 v1  mc
2

 2 
2mc 2 2m
v 
2
1  V1  c
M M
19. Statement‐l: Energy is released when heavy nuclei undergo fission or light nuclei undergo
 fusion and

Statement‐2 : For heavy nuclei, binding energy per nucleon increases with increasing 𝒁

while for light nuclei it decreases with increasing Z.

[2008]

(a) Statement‐l is false, Statement‐2 is true

(b) Statement‐ 1 is true, Statement‐2 is true; Statement‐2 is a correct explanation for

Statement‐ 1

(c) Statement‐l is true, Statement‐2 is true; Statement‐2 is not a correct explanation for

Statement‐l

(d) Statement‐l is true, Statement‐2 is false

SOL. (d) We know that energy is released when heavy nuclei undergo fission or light nuclei undergo

fusion. Therefore statement (1) is correct.

The second statement is false because for heavy nuclei the binding energy per nucleon decreases

with increasing 𝑍 and for light nuclei, B. E/nucleon increases with increasing 𝑍.
𝟏𝟕 ,
20. 𝐈𝐟 𝑴𝑶 is the mass of an oxygen isotope 𝟖𝐎 𝑴
𝑷 and 𝑴𝑵 are the masses of a proton and a

neutron respectively, the nuclear binding energy of the isotope is

[2007]

(a) (𝑴𝑶 − 𝟏𝟕𝑴𝑵 )𝒄𝟐 (b) (𝑴𝑶 − 𝟖𝑴𝑷 )𝒄𝟐 (c) (𝑴𝑶 − 𝟖𝑴𝑷 − 𝟗𝑴𝑵 )𝒄𝟐 (d) 𝑴𝑶 𝒄𝟐

SOL. (c) Number of protons in oxygen isotope, 𝑍 = 8

Number of neutrons = 17 − 8 = 9

Binding energy

= [ZMP + (A − Z)MN − M]c 2

= [8MP + (17 − 8)MN − M]c 2

= [8MP + 9MN − M]c 2

= [8MP + 9MN − Mo ]c 2

21. When Li37 nuclei are bombarded by protons, and the resultant nuclei are Be48 , the emitted
 particles will be

[2006]

(a) alpha particles (b) beta particles (c) gamma photons (d) neutrons

SOL. (c) Li37  p11  Be48  

We see that both proton number and mass number are equal in both sides, so emitted particle

should be massless gamma photons.

22. If the binding energy per nucleon in Li37 and He24 nuclei are 𝟓. 𝟔𝟎 𝐌𝐞𝐕 and 𝟕. 𝟎𝟔 𝐌𝐞𝐕

respectively, then in the reaction p  Li37  2 He24 . energy of proton must be

[2006]

(a) 𝟐𝟖. 𝟐𝟒𝐌𝐞𝐕 (b) 𝟏𝟕. 𝟐𝟖𝐌𝐞𝐕 (c) 𝟏. 𝟒𝟔𝐌𝐞𝐕 (d) 𝟑𝟗. 𝟐𝐌𝐞𝐕

SOL. (b) Given,

Binding energy per nucleon of Li37  5.60MeV

Binding energy per nucleon of He24  7.06MeV

Let 𝐸 be the energy ofproton, then

𝐸 + 7 × 5.6 = 2 × [4 × 7.06]

⇒ 𝐸 = 56.48 − 39.2 = 17.28MeV

23. A nuclear transformation is denoted by 𝑿(𝒏, 𝜶) Li37 Which of the following is the nucleus of

element 𝑿 ?

[2005]

(a) B510 (b) C612 (c) Be11

4 (d) B59

A 7
SOL. (a) z X + n1 → 3Li + 2He4

Using conservation of mass number

𝐴+1 =4+7

⇒ 𝐴 = 10
 Using conservation of charge number

𝑍+0=2+3 ⇒𝑍 =5
10
It is boron 5B

24. A nucleus disintegrated into two nuclear parts which have their velocities in the ratio of 2: 1.

The ratio of their nuclear sizes will be

[2004]

1 1
(a) 3 2 :1 (b) 𝟏: 𝟐𝟏/𝟑 (c) 𝟐𝟏/𝟑 : 𝟏 (d) 1: 3 2

SOL. (b) Given:

v1 2

v2 1

From conservation of momentum 𝑚1 𝑣1 = 𝑚2 𝑣2

 m  v  1
 1  2 
 m2   v1  2

We know that mass of nucleus, 𝑚 ∝ 𝐴

Nuclear size 𝑅 ∝ 𝐴1/3 ∝ 𝑚1/3

1/3
R1  m1  R13 1 𝑅 1 1/3
   3
 ⇒ (𝑅1 ) = (2)
R2  m2  R2 2 2

25. The binding energy per nucleon of deuteron H12 and helium nucleus He24 is 𝟏. 𝟏𝐌𝐞𝐕 and

7 MeV respectively. If two deuteron nuclei react to form a single helium nucleus, then the

energy released is

[2004]

(a) 𝟐𝟑. 𝟔𝐌𝐞𝐕 (b) 𝟐𝟔. 𝟗𝐌𝐞𝐕 (c) 𝟏𝟑. 𝟗𝐌𝐞𝐕 (d) 𝟏𝟗. 𝟐𝐌𝐞𝐕

SOL. (a) The chemical reaction of process is 212 H → 2He 4

Binding energy of two deuterons,

4 × 1.1 = 4.4MeV

Binding energy of helium nucleus = 4 × 7 = 28MeV

 Energy released = 28 − 4.4 = 23.6MeV

26. When a 𝐔𝟐𝟑𝟖 nucleus originally at rest, decays byemitting an alpha particle having a speed

‘u’, the recoil speed of the residual nucleus is [2003]

4u 4u 4u 4u
(a) (b)  (c) (d) 
238 234 234 238
SOL. (c) Mass of 𝛼 particle, 𝑚𝛼 = 4𝑢

Mass of nucleus after fission, 𝑚𝑛 = 234𝑢

From conservation of linear momentum we have

238 × 0 = 4𝑢 + 234𝑣
4
𝑣=− 𝑢
234
4
Speed | v | u
234

27. In the nuclear fusion reaction H12  H13  He24  n

given that the repulsive potential energy between the two nuclei 𝐢𝐬 ∼ 𝟕. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 𝐉 , the

temperature at which the gases must be heated to initiate the reaction is nearly [Boltzmann’s

Constant 𝒌 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 𝐉/𝐊]

[2003]

(a) 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝐊 (b) 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐊 (c) 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐊 (d) 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐊

3
SOL. (d) The average kinetic energy per molecule at temperature 𝑇 is  kT
2
Where 𝑘 = Boltzmann′ s constant

This kinetic energy should be able to provide the repulsive potential energy
3
𝑘𝑇 = 7.7 × 10−14
2
2 × 7.7 × 10−14
⇒𝑇= = 3.7 × 109 𝐾
3 × 1.38 × 10−23

Topic 3: Radioactivity
28. Activities of three radioactive substances 𝐀, 𝐁 and 𝐂 are represented by the curves 𝐀, 𝐁

and 𝐂, in the figure. Then their half‐lives T1  A  : T1  B : T1  C  are in the ratio:

2 2 2

[Sep. 05, 2020 (I)]

(a) 2: 1 : 1 (b) 3: 2: 1 (c) 2: 1 : 3 (d) 4: 3 : 1

SOL. (c) Since, 𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

ln 𝑅 = ln 𝑅0 + (−𝜆 ln 𝑡)
ln 2
  Slope
t1/2
6 10
A   TA  ln 2
10 6
6 5 ln 2
𝜆𝐵 = ⇒ 𝑇𝐵 =
5 6
2 5 ln 2
𝜆𝑐 = ⇒ 𝑇𝐶 =
5 6
10 5 15
T1  A  : T1  B : T1  C   : :  2 :1: 3
2 2 2 6 6 6
29. A radioactive nucleus decays by two different processes. The half life for the first process is

10 𝐬 and that for the second is 100 𝐬. The effective halflife of the nucleus is close to:

[Sep. 05, 2020 (II)]

(a) 9 sec. (b) 6 sec. (c) 55 sec. (d) 12 sec.

SOL. (a) Let 𝜆1 and 𝜆2 be the decay constants of two process. 𝑁 be the number of nuclei left

undecayed after two process. From the law of radioactive decay we have
 dN 𝑑𝑁
  1 N  2 N [⋅.⋅ − 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜆𝑁]
dt
𝑑𝑁
⇒− = (𝜆1 + 𝜆2 )𝑁
𝑑𝑡
⇒ 𝜆eq . = (𝜆1 + 𝜆2 )
ln 2 ln 2 ln 2 ln 2
   (⋅.⋅ 𝜆 = 𝑇
)
T T1 T2
1 1 1
⇒ = +
𝑇 𝑇1 𝑇2
1 1 1 11
⇒ 𝑇 = 10 + 100 = 100 [Given: 𝑇1 = 10 s & T2=100 s]

100
⇒𝑇= = 9 sec.
11

30. In a radioactive material, fraction of active material remaining after time 𝒕 is 9/16. The

fraction that was remaining after 𝒕𝒍𝟐 is:

[Sep. 03, 2020 (I)]

4 3 3 7
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5 5 4 8
SOL. (c) As we know, for first order decay, 𝑁(𝑡) = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

According to question,
𝑁(𝑡) 9
= = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑁0 16
After time, t/2;

𝑁(𝑡/2) = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆(𝑡/2)

𝑁(𝑡/2) 9
= √𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 = √
𝑁0 16

3
𝑁(𝑡𝑙2) = 𝑁0
4
31. The activity of a radioactive sample falls from 700 𝐬 −𝟏 to 500 𝐬−𝟏 in 30 minutes. Its

halflife is close to:

[7 Jan. 2020, II]

(a) 𝟕𝟐 𝐦𝐢𝐧 (b) 𝟔𝟐 𝐦𝐢𝐧 (c) 𝟔𝟔 𝐦𝐢𝐧 (d) 𝟓𝟐 𝐦𝐢𝐧

SOL. (b) We know that

Activity, 𝐴 = 𝐴0 𝑒 −𝜆t

 In  
A  A0et ln 2/T1/2     2  
 T1/2  

⇒ 500 = 700𝑒 −𝑡𝐼𝑛2/𝑇1/2

7 30𝐼𝑛2
⇒ 𝐼𝑛 5 = (t = 30 minute)
𝑇1/2

𝐼𝑛2
⇒ 𝑇1/2 = 30 𝐼𝑛1.4 = 61.8 minute

( ln 2 = 0.693 and ln. 1.4 = 0.336)

⇒ 𝑇1/2 ≈ 62 minute

32. Two radioactive materials A and B have decay constants 10 𝝀 and 𝝀, respectively. If initially

they have the same number of nuclei, then the ratio of the number of nuclei of A to that 𝐨𝐟 𝐁

will be 𝟏/𝐞 after a time:

[10 April 2019, I]

1 1 11 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
9 11 10 10
SOL. (a) As, N = N0 e−𝜆t
NA 1
so,  e B A t    B  A  t  1
NB e

⇒ (𝜆A − 𝜆B ). 𝑡 = 1
1 1 1
⇒t= t= =
(𝜆B − 𝜆A ) 10𝜆 − 𝜆 9𝜆
33. Two radioactive substances A and 𝐁 have decay constants 𝟓𝝀 and 𝝀 respectively. At 𝒕 = 𝟎,

a sample has the same number of the two nuclei. The time taken for the ratio of the number

2
1
of nuclei to become   will be:
e

[10 April 2019, II]

(a) 𝟏/𝟐𝝀 (b) 𝟏/𝟒𝝀 (c) 𝟏/𝝀 (d) 𝟐/𝝀

SOL. (a) Let N1 and N2 be the number ofradioactive nuclei of substance at anytime t.
 𝑁1 (at 𝑡) = 𝑁0 𝑒 −5𝜆𝑡 (i)

𝑁2 (at 𝑡) = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 (ii)

Dividing equation (i) by (ii), we get

N1 1
  e4t  4 t  2
N 2 e2
2 1
⇒𝑡= =( )
4𝜆 2𝜆

34. In a radioactive decay chain, the initial nucleus is Th90232 .

At the end there are 6 𝜶‐particles and 4 𝜷‐particles which are emitted. If the end nucleus is

𝐳 𝐗 𝐀 , A and 𝐙 are given by:

[12 Jan. 2019, II]

(a) 𝐀 = 𝟐𝟎𝟖; 𝐙 = 𝟖𝟎 (b) 𝐀 = 𝟐𝟎𝟐; 𝐙 = 𝟖𝟎

(c) 𝐀 = 𝟐𝟎𝟖; 𝐙 = 𝟖𝟐 (d) 𝐀 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎; 𝐙 = 𝟖𝟏

SOL. (c) When one 𝛼‐ particle emitted then daughter nuclei has 4 unit less mass number (A) and 2 unit

less atomic number (z)

232
Th90  Y78208  6 He24

Y78208  X 82208  4 particle

35. Using a nuclear counter the count rate of emitted particles from a radioactive source is

measured. At 𝐭 = 𝟎 it was 1600 counts per second and 𝐭 = 𝟖 seconds it was 100 counts per

second. The count rate observed, as counts per second, at 𝐭 = 𝟔 seconds is close to:

[10 Jan. 2019 I]

(a) 200 (b) 150 (c) 400 (d) 360

SOL. (a) According to question,

dN
at t = 0, A0   1600C / s and
dt
at t = 8s, A = 100C/s
A 1
  in 8 sec
A0 16
 Therefore half life period, t1/2 = 2s

1 3
Activity at t = 6s = 1600 (2) = 200C/s

36. A sample of radioactive material A, that has an activity of 10 𝐦𝐂𝐢 (1 Ci

= 𝟑. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝐝𝐞𝐜𝐚𝐲𝐬/𝐬), has twice the number of nuclei as another sample of a different

radioactive material 𝐁 which has an activity of 20 𝐦𝐂𝐢. The coniect choices for half-lives of

A and 𝐁 would then be respectively: [9 Jan. 2019 I]

(a) 5 days and 10 days (b) 10 days and 40 days

(c) 20 days and 5 days (d) 20 days and 10 days

SOL. (c) Activity A = 1N

For material, A 10 = (2N0)1A

For material, B 20 = N01B

0.693
⇒ 𝜆B = 4𝜆A .⋅. T/12 A = 4T/12 B [⋅.⋅ T/12 = ]
𝜆

i. e. 20 days half‐lives for A and 5 days (T√2 ) For material B.

B

37. At a given instant, say 𝐭 = 𝟎, two radioactive substances A and 𝐁 have equal activities. The
RB
ratio of their activities after time 𝐭 itself decays with time 𝐭 as e 3t . If the half‐life
RA

𝐨𝐟 𝐀 is ln2, the half‐life of 𝐁 is:

[9 Jan. 2019, II]

ln2 ln2
(a) 4ln2 (b) (c) (d) 2ln2
2 4
SOL. (c) Half life of A = ℓ𝑛 2
ℓn2
(𝑡1/2 )𝐴 =
𝜆
𝜆A = 1

at t = 0 RA = RB

NA e−𝜆AT = NB e−𝜆BT

NA = NB at t = 0
 RB N 0 e Bt
At t  t, 
RA N 0 e At

e−(𝜆B −𝜆A )t = e−3t

⇒ 𝜆B − 𝜆A = 3

𝜆B = 3 + 𝜆 A = 4
ℓn2 ℓn2
(t1/2 ) = =
B 𝜆𝐵 4
38. At some instant, a radioactive sample S1 having an activity 𝟓𝝁𝐂𝐢 has twice the number of

nuclei as another sample 𝐒𝟐 which has an activity of l𝟎𝝁𝐂𝐢. The half-lives 𝐨𝐟 𝐒𝟏 and 𝐒𝟐 are

[Online Apri116, 2018]

(a) 10 years and 20 years, respectively

(b) 5 years and 20 years, respectively

(c) 20 years and 10 years, respectively

(d) 20 years and 5 years, respectively

SOL. (b) Given: N1 = 2N2

Activity of radioactive substance = 𝜆N

ln 2 ln 2
Half life period t = or, 𝜆 =
𝜆 T

ln 2
𝜆1 N1 = × N1 = 5𝜇Ci ..... (i)
t1

ln 2
𝜆2 N2 = × N2 = 10𝜇Ci ..... (ii)
t2

Dividing equation (ii) by (i)

t 2 N1 1
× =
t1 N2 2
t2 1
= ⇒ t1 = 4t 2
t1 4
i. e., Half life of S1 is four times of sample S2 . Hence 5 years and 20 years.

39. 60
A solution containing active cobalt Co27 having activity 𝐨𝐟 𝟎. 𝟖 𝝁𝐂𝐢 and decay constant 𝝀

is injected in an animal’s body. If 𝟏𝐜𝐦𝟑 of blood is drawn from the animal’s body after 10

hrs of injection, the activity found was 300 decays per minute. What is the volume of blood
 that is flowing in the body? (1Ci = 𝟑. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 decay per second and at 𝐭 = 𝟏𝟎 hrs,

𝐞−𝝀𝐭 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟒) [Online Apri115, 2018]

(a) 6 litres (b) 7 litres (c) 4 litres (d) 5 litres

SOL. (d) Let initial activity  N0  0.8 ci

=0.8 × 3.7 × 104 dps

Activity in 1 cm3 of blood at t = 10hr,

300
n dps  5 dps
60
N = Activity of whole blood at time t = 10hr.

N N0e  t 0.8  3.7 104  0.7927

Total volume of the blood in the person, V     5 litres
n n 5
40. A radioactive nucleus A with a half life 𝐓, decays into a nucleus B. At 𝐭 = 𝟎, there is no

nucleus B. At sometime 𝐭, the ratio of the number 𝐨𝐟 𝐁 to that 𝐨𝐟 𝐀 is 𝟎. 𝟑. Then, 𝐭 is

given by

[2017]
T
(a) 𝒕 = 𝑻 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝟏. 𝟑) (b) t 
log 1.3
log 2 log1.3
(c) t  T (d) t 
log1.3 log 2
SOL. (d) Let initially there are total N0 number of nuclei

At time t
NB
 0.3( given)
NA

⇒ 𝑁𝐵 = 0.3𝑁𝐴

N0 = 𝑁𝐴 + 𝑁𝐵 = 𝑁𝐴 + 0.3𝑁𝐴
N0
𝑁𝐴 =
1.3

As we know Nt  N0e t

N0
or,  N 0 e  t
1.3
 1
 e  t ⇒ 𝑙𝑛(1.3) = 𝜆𝑡
1.3
ln 1.3 ln 1.3 ln 1.3
or, t  t   T
 ln  2  ln  2 
T
41. Half‐lives of two radioactive elements A and 𝐁 are 20 minutes and 40 minutes, respectively.

Initially, the samples have equal number of nuclei. After 80 minutes, the ratio of decayed

number 𝐨𝐟 𝐀 and 𝐁 nuclei will be:

[2016]

(a) 1:4 (b) 5:4 (c) 1:16 (d) 4: 1

SOL. (b) For At1 /2 = 20 min , t = 80 min , number of half-lives n = 4

N0
Nuclei remaining  .
24
Therefore nuclei decayed
N0
= N0 −
24
For B t1 /2 = 40 min ., t = 80 min , number of half-lives n = 2
N0
Nuclei remaining  .
22
Therefore nuclei decayed
N0
= N0 −
22
N0 1
1
N0 
Required ratio  2  16  15  4  5
4

N 1 16 3 4
N 0  20 1 
2 4

42. Let 𝐍𝜷 be the number of 𝜷 particles emitted by 1 gram 𝐨𝐟 𝐍𝐚𝟐𝟒 radioactive nuclei (half

life = 𝟏𝟓 𝐡𝐫𝐬) in 𝟕. 𝟓 hours, 𝐍𝜷 is close to (Avogadro number = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 /𝐠. mole):

[Online April 11, 2015]

(a) 𝟔. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟏 (b) 𝟕. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟏 (c) 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟐 (d) 𝟏. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟐

SOL. (b) We know that 𝑁𝛽 = 𝑁0 (1 − 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 )

 6.023 × 1023 ℓn2
𝑁𝛽 = [1 − 𝑒 × 7.5]
24 l5
on solving we get,

N𝛽 = 7.4 × 1021

43. A piece of wood from a recently cut tree shows 20 decays per minute. A wooden piece of same

size placed in a museum (obtained from a tree cut many years back) shows 2 decays per

minute. If half life 𝐨𝐟 𝐂 𝟏𝟒 is 5730 years, then age of the wooden piece placed in the museum

is approximately:

[Online Apri1 19, 2014]

(a) 10439 years (b) 13094 years (c) 19039 years (d) 39049 years
dN0
SOL. (c) Given:  20decays / min
dt
dN
= 2decays/ min
dt
T1/2 = 5730 years

As we know,

N  N 0 e  t

N0
Log = 𝜆t
N
1 N0
t= Log
𝜆 N
2.303 × T1/2 N0
= × Log10
0.693 N
dN 0
N 20
But dt  0   10
dN N 2
dt
2.303 × 5730
t= ×1
0.693
= 19039 years

44. A piece of bone of an animal 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 a ruin is found to have C14 activity of 12 disintegrations

per minute per gm of its carbon content. The C14 activity of a living animal is 16
 disintegrations per minute per gm. How long ago nearly did the animal die? (Given half life

o𝐟 𝟏𝟒 𝐂 is 𝐭 𝟏/𝟐 = 𝟓𝟕𝟔𝟎

years)

[Online April 12, 2014]

(a) 1672 years (b) 2391 years (c) 3291 years (d) 4453 years

SOL. (b) Given, for C14

A0 = 16 dis min−1 g −1 A = 12 dis min−1 g −1 t1/2 = 5760 years

0.693
Now,  
t1/2
0.693
 per year
5760
2.303 A0
Then, from, t  log10
 A
2.303 × 5760 16
= log10
0.693 12
2.303 × 5760
= log10 1.333
0.693
2.303  5760  0.1249
  2390.81  2391 years.
0.693
45. A radioactive nuclei with decay constant 𝟎. 𝟓/𝐬 is being produced at a constant rate of 100

𝐧𝐮𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐢/𝐬. If at 𝐭 = 𝟎 there were no nuclei, the time when there are 50 nuclei is:

[Online April 11, 2014]

4 4
(a) 1s (b) 2ln   s (c) ln 2 𝐬 (d) ln   s
3 3
SOL. (b) Let 𝑁 be the number ofnuclei at any time 𝑡 then,

N t
dN dN
dt
 100   N or 0 100   N   0dt
1
 log 100   N   0  t
N


log (100 − 𝜆𝑁) − log 100 = −𝜆𝑡
100 − 𝜆𝑁
log = −𝜆𝑡
100
 100   N N
 e  t 1  e  t
100 100
100
𝑁= (1 − 𝑒 −𝜆 𝑡)
𝜆
As, 𝑁 = 50and𝜆 = 0.5/ sec
100
50 = (1 − 𝑒 −0.5𝑡 )
0.5
Solving we get,
4
𝑡 = 2 ln ( ) sec
3
46. The half‐life of a radioactive element A is the same as the mean‐life of another radioactive

element B. Initially both substances have the same number of atoms, then :

[Online April 22, 2013]

(a) A and 𝐁 decay at the same rate always.

(b) A and 𝐁 decay at the same rate initially.

(c) A will decay at a faster rate than B.

(d) 𝐁 will decay at a faster rate than A.

SOL. (d) (T1/2 ) = (t mean )B

A

0.693 1
⇒ = ⇒ 𝜆A = 0.693𝜆B
𝜆A 𝜆B
or 𝜆A < 𝜆B

Also rate of decay = 𝜆N

Initially number of atoms (N) of both are equal but since 𝜆B > 𝜆A ,

therefore B will decay at a faster rate than A

47. The counting rate observed from a radioactive source at 𝒕 = 𝟎 was 1600 counts 𝐬−𝟏 , and

𝒕 = 𝟖𝐬, it was 100 counts 𝐬−𝟏 . The counting rate observed as counts 𝐬−𝟏 at 𝒕 = 𝟔𝐬 will be

[Online May 26, 2012]

(a) 250 (b) 400 (c) 300 (d) 200

SOL. (d) As we know,

  N  1
n

     --(i)
 N0   2 

𝑛 = no. of half life N‐ no. of atoms left 𝑁0 ‐ initial no. of atoms

By radioactive decay law,

𝑑𝑁
= 𝑘𝑁 k‐ disintegration constant
𝑑t

dN
dt  N ---(ii)
dN 0 N 0
dt

From (i) and (ii) we get

𝑑𝑁 𝑛
𝑑𝑡 = [1]
𝑑𝑁0 2
𝑑𝑡
n 4 n
 100   1  1 1
or,        
1600   2  2 2

therefore 𝑛 = 4,

Therefore, in 8 seconds 4 half life had occurred in which counting rate reduces to 100 counts s −1 .

T1
Half life,  2 sec
2
In 6 sec, 3 half life will occur

 dN 
 dt   1  3 dN
     200 counts s −1
 1600  2 dt
 

48. The decay constants of a radioactive substance for 𝜶 and 𝜷 emission are 𝝀𝜶 and 𝝀𝜷

respectively. If the substance emits 𝜶 and 𝜷 simultaneously, then the average halflife of

the material will be

[Online May 19, 2012]

 2T T T T
(a)
T  T
(b) 𝑻𝜶 + 𝑻𝜷 (c)
T  T
(d)
1
2
T  T 

T T
SOL. (c) Tav 
T  T

If 𝛼 and 𝐵 are emitted simultaneously.

49. Which of the following Statements is correct?

[Online May 12, 2012]

(a) The rate of radioactive decay cannot be controlled but that of nuclear fission can be

controlled.

(b) Nuclear forces are short range, attractive and charge dependent.

(c) Nuclei of atoms having same number of neutrons are known as isobars.

(d) Wavelength of matter waves is given by de Broglie formula but that of photons is not

given by the same formula

SOL. (a) Radioactive decay is a continuous process. Rate of radioactive decay cannot be controlled.

Nuclear fission can be controlled but not of nuclear fusion.

50. A sample originally contained 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎 radioactive atoms, which emit 𝜶‐particles. The ratio

𝐨𝐟𝜶‐particles emitted in the third year to that emitted during the second year is 𝟎. 𝟑. How

many 𝜶‐particles were emitted in the first year?

[Online May 7, 2012]

(a) 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 (b) 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 (c) 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 (d) 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗

SOL. (b)

51. The half life of a radioactive substance is 20 minutes. The approximate time interval
2 1
(𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 ) between the time 𝒕𝟐 when of it had decayed and time 𝒕𝟏 when of it had
3 3
decayed is:

[2011]

(a) 𝟏𝟒 𝐦𝐢𝐧 (b) 20 min (c) 28 min (d) 𝟕 𝐦𝐢𝐧

SOL. (b) Number of undecayed atom after time 𝑡2 ;
N0
 N 0 e   t2 (i)
3
2 N0
Number of undecayed atom after time 𝑡1 ;  N 0e t1 (ii)
3
Dividing (ii) by (i), we get

2 = 𝑒 𝜆(𝑡2 −𝑡1 )

⇒ In2 = 𝜆(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )

⇒ 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = In2/𝜆

52. Statement‐l : A nucleus having energy 𝑬𝟏 decays by 𝜷− emission to daughter nucleus

having energy 𝑬𝟐 , but the 𝜷− rays are emitted with a continuous energy spectrum having

end point energy 𝑬𝟏 − 𝑬𝟐 .

Statement‐2 : To conserve energy and momentum in 𝜷− decay at least three particles must

take part in the transformation.

[2011 𝐑𝐒]

(a) Statement‐l is correct but statement‐2 is not correct.

(b) Statement‐l and statement‐2 both are correct and statement‐2 is the correct explanation

of statement‐l.

(c) Statement‐l is correct, statement‐2 is correct and statement‐2 is not the correct

explanation of Statement‐l

(d) Statement‐l is incorrect, statement‐2 is correct.

SOL. (b) Statement‐l: A nucleus having energy 𝐸1 decays by 𝛽‐ emission to daughter nucleus having

energy 𝐸2 then 𝛽‐ rays are emitted with continuous energy spectrum with energy 𝐸1 − 𝐸2 .

Statement‐2: For energy conservation and momentum conservation at least three particles,

daughter nucleus, 𝛽 particle and antineutrino are required.

53. A radioactive nucleus (initial mass number 𝑨 and atomic number 𝒁 emits 3𝜶‐ particles

and 2 positrons. The ratio of number of neutrons to that of protons in the final nucleus will

be
 [2010]
A Z 8 A Z 4 A  Z  12 A Z 4
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Z 4 Z 8 Z 4 Z 2
SOL. (b) When a radioactive nucleus emits 1 𝛼‐particle, the mass number decreases by 4 units and

atomic number decreases by 2 units. When a radioactive nucleus emits 1 positron the atomic

number decreases by 1 unit but mass number remains constant.

Mass number of final nucleus = 𝐴 − 12

Atomic number of final nucleus = 𝑍 − 8

Number of neutrons, 𝑁𝑛 = (𝐴 − 12) − (𝑍 − 8) = 𝐴 − 𝑍 − 4

Number of protons, 𝑁𝑝 = 𝑍 − 8
Nn A  Z  4
Required ratio  
Np Z 8

54. The half‐life period of a radio‐active element X is same as the mean life time of another

radio‐active element 𝒀. Initially they have the same number of atoms. Then

[2007]

(a) 𝑿 and 𝒀 decay at same rate always

(b) 𝑿 will decay faster than 𝒀

(c) 𝒀 will decay faster than 𝑿

(d) 𝑿 and 𝒀 have same decay rate initially

SOL. (c) Let 𝜆𝑋 and 𝜆𝑌 be the decay constant of 𝑋 and 𝑌.

Half life of 𝑋, = average life of 𝑌

𝑇1/2 = 𝑇𝑎𝑣
0.693 1
⇒ =
𝜆𝑋 𝜆𝑌
⇒ 𝜆𝑋 = (0.693). 𝜆𝑌

𝜆X < 𝜆 Y .

Now, the rate of decay is given by

𝑑𝑁
− ( ) = 𝜆𝑋 𝑁0
𝑑𝑡 𝑥
 𝑑𝑁
−( ) = 𝜆𝑦 𝑁0
𝑑𝑡 𝑦

As the rate of decay is directly proportional to decay constant, Y will decay faster than 𝑋.

55. The energy spectrum of 𝜷‐particles [number 𝐍(𝐄) as a function 𝐨𝐟 𝜷‐energy 𝐄 emitted

from a radioactive source is

[2006]

SOL. (c) The range of energy of 𝛽‐particles is from zero to some maximum value.
7
56. Starting with a sample of pure 66Cu , of it decays into Zn in 15 minutes. The
8
corresponding halflife is

[2005]

𝟏
(a) 15 minutes (b) 10 minutes (c) 𝟕 𝟐 minutes (d) 5 minutes

SOL. (d) It is given that

7
of Cu decays in 15 minutes.
8
Cu left undecayed is

7 1 1 3
𝑁 =1− = =( )
8 8 2
No. of half-lives = 3
𝑡 15
𝑛= ⇒3=
𝑇 𝑇
 15
⇒ 𝑇 = halflife period   5 minutes
3
57. The intensity of gamma radiation 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 a given source is I. On passing through 36 mm of
1 I
lead, it is reduced to . The thickness of lead which will reduce the intensityto will be
8 2
[2005]

(a) 𝟗𝐦𝐦 (b) 𝟔𝐦𝐦 (c) 𝟏𝟐𝐦𝐦 (d) 𝟏𝟖𝐦𝐦

SOL. (c) Let intensity of gamma radiation from source be I0 .

Intensity I  I 0 .e  d

Where d is the thickness of lead.

Applying logarithm on both sides,

 I 
  d  log  
 I0 

I
For 𝑑 = 36 mm, intensity 
8
I/8
−𝜇 × 36 = log ( ) -----(i)
I

For intensity I/2, thickness = 𝑑

𝐼/2
−𝜇 × 𝑑 = log ( ) -----(𝑖𝑖)
𝐼

Dividing (i) by (ii),

1 1
log   3 log  
36
 8  2 3 or 𝑑 =
36
= 12mm
d 1 1 3
log   log  
2 2

58. Which of the following cannot be emitted by radioactive substances during their decay?

[2003]

(a) Protons (b) Neutrinos (c) Helium nuclei (d) Electrons

SOL. (a) The radioactive substances emit 𝛼 ‐particles (Helium nucleus), 𝛽‐particles (electrons) and

neutrinos. Protons cannot be emitted by radioactive substances during their decay.

59. A nucleus with 𝒁 = 𝟗𝟐 emits the following in a sequence:

 𝜶, 𝜷− , 𝜷− , 𝜶, 𝜶, 𝜶, 𝜶, 𝜶, 𝜷− , 𝜷− , 𝜶, 𝜷+ , 𝜷+ , 𝜶

Then 𝒁 ofthe resulting nucleus is

[2003]

(a) 76 (b) 78 (c) 82 (d) 74

SOL. (b) The number of 𝛼‐particles released = 8

Decrease in atomic number = 8 × 2 = 16

The number of 𝛽 − ‐particles released = 4

Increase in atomic number = 4 × 1 = 4

Also the number of 𝛽 + particles released is 2, which should decrease the atomic number by 2.

Therefore the final atomic number of resulting nucleus

= 𝑍 − 16 + 4 − 2 = 𝑍 − 14

= 92 − 14 = 78

60. A radioactive sample at any instant has its disintegration rate 5000 disintegrations per

minute. After 5 minutes, the rate is 1250 disintegrations per minute. Then, the decay constant

(per minute) is

[2003]

(a) 𝟎. 𝟒 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 (b) 𝟎. 𝟐 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 (c) 𝟎. 𝟏 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 (d) 𝟎. 𝟖 𝐥𝐧 𝟐

SOL. (a) Initial activity, 𝐴𝑜 = 5000 disintegration per minute.

Activity after 5 min , 𝐴 = 1250 disintegration per minute

𝐴 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝐴𝑜
⇒ 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 =
𝐴
1 𝐴𝑜 1 5000
⇒ 𝜆 = log 𝑒 = log 𝑒
𝑡 𝐴 5 1250
2
= log 𝑒 2 = 0.4log 𝑒 2
5
61. At a specific instant emission of radioactive compound is deflected in a magnetic field. The

compound can emit

 (i) electrons (ii) protons (iii) 𝐇𝐞𝟐+ (iv) neutrons

The emission at instant can be

[2002]

(a) 𝐢, ii,iii (b) 𝐢, ii, iii, iv (c) iv (d) 𝐢𝐢, 𝒊𝒊𝒊

SOL. (a) Charged particles are deflected in magnetic field. Electrons, protons and He2+ all are charged

species. Hence, correct option is (a).

62. 𝐈𝐟 𝑵𝟎 is the original mass of the substance of half‐life period 𝒕𝟏/𝟐 = 𝟓 years, then the

amount of substance left after 15 years is

[2002]

(a) 𝑵𝟎 /𝟖 (b) 𝑵𝟎 /𝟏𝟔 (c) 𝑵𝟎 /𝟐 (d) 𝑵𝟎 /𝟒

SOL. (a) After every half‐life, the mass of the substance reduces to half its initial value.