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Computational Water, Energy, and Environmental Engineering > Vol.8 No.3,

July 2019

Assessment of the Microbiological Quality of Drinking Water in Light of

Water Quality in the Pelengana Commune of Segou Region
Hawa Diakite , Yujuan Gao , Amadou Toure
1 1* 2

College of Economics and Management, Northeast Forestry University,

1

Harbin, China.
School of Forestry, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, China.
2

DOI: 10.4236/cweee.2019.83005 PDF HTML XML 1,110 Downloads 3,074 View

s Citations
Abstract
This study focused to determine the bacteriological quality of different commonly used water
sources, including boreholes, hand pumps, surface water, household containers, dug well and
cement reservoirs in Pelengana commune, in Mali with special reference to the internally
displaced people camps. Four hundred and eight water samples were collected from different
sites and sources, from July 2016 to June 2017. Water samples were examined for total coliform,
fecal coliform and fecal enterococci counts using the most probable number method. Also,
samples were investigated for the presence of enteric bacteria isolated, namely Escherichia
coli, Enterococcus fecalis, Bacillus, Citrobacter and Enterobacter. Results
revealed that the three indicators bacteria (Total Coliform (48.7%), Fecal
Coliform (100%), and Fecal enterococci (37.01%)) were found above
permissible limit for drinking water. The highest number of the indicators
bacteria found was 1800 TC/100ml water. Enteric bacteria isolated
were Escherichia coli (25.7%), Enterococcus
fecalis (21.91%), Bacillus (16.72%), Enterobacter (4.56%)
and Citrobacter (3.91%). The most contaminated water source was surface
water (15.28%) followed by household containers (13.65%), boreholes
(8.75%), cement reservoirs (7.47%), hand pumps (5.31%) and dug wells
(2.7%). These findings illustrate that contamination varied with seasons, and
the highest level was observed in rainy season (30.02%) compared to the
dry season (23.14%). All sources of water in the study sites were
contaminated. It is suggested that the outright prevention of surface water
consumption should be employed and monitoring of the quality of water
resources is needed.
Keywords
Water Microbiology, Total Coliform Count, Fecal Coliform Count, Fecal
Enterococci Count, Mali
Share and Cite:
Diakite, H. , Gao, Y. and Toure, A. (2019) Assessment of the Microbiological Quality of
Drinking Water in Light of Water Quality in the Pelengana Commune of Segou
Region. Computational Water, Energy, and Environmental Engineering, 8, 79-89.
doi: 10.4236/cweee.2019.83005.

1. Introduction
The microbiological quality of drinking water has brought about great preoccupation to mankind
because of implied public health repercussions. Bad quality of drinking water, poor sanitation
and hygiene have been pointed out among the 20 top risk factors for health burden in developing
countries [1] . Detection of bacterial indicators in drinking water involves the presence of
pathogenic organisms that are the source of waterborne diseases which could be deadly [2] . The
supply of drinking water of sufficient quality and quantity remains a crucial public health need in
most African countries, including Mali, where diarrhoeal diseases continue to cause particularly
high mortality [3] . However, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), about 1.1
billion human beings lack good quality water and 2.4 billion do not have access to adequate
sanitation. More than 2 million people, especially children below five years in developing
countries with insufficient hygiene and sanitation, die each year by diarrheal diseases [4] . The
water for human consumption must not contain organisms and chemical substances in
concentrations sufficiently high to affect health [5] .
Nevertheless, most Malian water supply systems are still intermittent systems with irregular
pressure and questionable water quality [2] . Water is not continuously available, and this makes
water storage at the household level necessary. This storage is considered a challenge and an
opportunity at the same time: the possible recontamination of drinking water between source and
point-of-use is well-recognized, as is the ability of households to reduce bacterial contamination
by home treatment [5] . There are two concepts that have shown the potential to improve
drinking water quality and lower the burden of diarrheal disease. “Household water treatment
and storage” (HWTS) interventions help to ensure the microbiological safety of water. They
include point-of-use water treatment technologies (e.g., boiling, solar disinfection, chlorination,
filtration, or other chemical treatment) as well as improved transport, storage, and handling
practices for potable water (e.g., storage in clean containers, preferably with narrow dispensers
or long-handled ladles to extract the water). “Water, sanitation, and hygiene” (WASH) practices
target the issues of safe water supply, improved sanitation, and hygiene behaviors in an
integrated way. WASH practices comprise good personal hygiene practices, such as regular
hand-washing with soap and good food hygiene practices, the availability of sanitation facilities
and the safe disposal of feces, as well as access to safe water supply points [5] . Both HWTS
interventions and WASH practices have been shown to be useful in the reduction of diarrhea
occurrence [4] , but their protective effect varied in different studies, and their effectiveness
seemed to have deteriorated over time as people stopped using them [2] .
Many studies have focused on water supply and public health in sub-Saharan Africa, but
comparatively few data are available from Mali in general and no study was conducted regarding
microbiological quality of water consumed by people living in rural area of Segou region in
particular [6] .
In recent years, a rebellion associated with terrorism ruptured in northern part of Mali, bringing
thousands of people to move into the peripheral areas of Pelengana commune in Segou region.
These communities live in rural areas characterized by overcrowding, poor dwelling and
inadequate water and sanitation. In such situations, waterborne diseases that are generally
associated with poor hygiene and sanitation can assign a majority of the population [7] .
Therefore access to safe drinking water and suitable sanitation is a priority. However, data from
different health centers of Pelengana commune has identified waterborne diseases as the main
diseases that affect this community living in different camps of internally displaced people.
Hence the present study was designed to evaluate the bacteriological quality of water in
Pelengana commune, Segou, Mali with special reference to the internally displaced people
camps.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Study Area
The study was conducted in the rural commune of Pelengana in Segou region. The region is
located in the center of Mali between 12˚30' and 15˚30'N latitude and 4˚ and 7˚W longitude, with
a total area of 62,504 km and a population of 2 338,349 based on the 2009 census [8] .
2

Currently, the commune of Pelengana has more than 10,500 displaced people. They are settled in
villages inside the commune, and these villages are reported in (Figure 1). Segou region has a
Sudano-Sahelian climate with two seasons, dry season that lasts eight months (October-May),
and rainy season that lasts four months (June-September). Rainfall of

Figure 1. Map of sampling sites in the rural commune of Pelengana.

the region ranges between 200 to 800 mm per year and the average temperature is 28˚C [9] .
Agriculture, livestock and fishing are the main activities of the region [10] .
2.2. Water Sample Collection
The sampling was carried out throughout 12 months during the two seasons, from July 2016 to
June 2017 in each site. A total of four hundred and eight water samples were collected from
twelve different sites in study area. Samples were collected from different supply sources
including boreholes equipped with submersible pumps, hand pumps, surface water, household
containers (canaries), dug well and cement reservoirs. Water samples were collected in 1 L
polyethylene flacons. These flacons were earlier washed with detergent, rinsed with tap water as
well as with distilled water, and then rinsed three times with the sampled water from the sources.
The water samples were carefully labeled and stored in a cooler at a temperature between 0˚C
and 4˚C. Then they were delivered to the microbiology laboratory within six hours of their
collection for further processing.
2.3. Microbiology
Fecal streptococci, Total and fecal coliform, were enumerated by multiple tube fermentation tests
[11] [12] . Coliform count was obtained using the three tube assay of the Most Probable
Number (MPN) technique. Presumptive coliform test was carried out using MacConkey broth
(oxoid). The first set of the three tubes had sterile 10 ml double strength broth lactose broth
(DSLB) and the second and third sets had 10ml single strength lactose broth (SSLB). All the
tubes contained Durham tube before sterilization. The three sets of the tubes received 10, 1 and
0.1 ml of water samples using sterile pipettes. The tubes were incubated at 37˚C for 24 - 48 hours
for estimation of total coliforms, at 44.5˚C for fecal coliforms for 24 - 48 hours, and at 37˚C for
24 hours for fecal streptococci and examined for acid and gas production. Acid production was
determined by color change of the broth from reddish purple to yellow and gas production was
checked for by entrapment of gas in the Durham tube. The MPN was then determined from the
MPN table for the three sets of tube [11] [12] .
Confirmed test: Confirmed test was carried out by transferring a loopful of culture from a
positive tube from presumptive test into a tube of Brilliant Green Lactose Bile (BGLB) broth
(oxoid) with Durham tubes. The tubes were incubated at 37˚C for 24 - 48 hours for total coliform
and 44.5˚C for fecal coliforms and observed for gas production [11] .
Completed test: Completed test was carried out by streaking a loopful of broth from a positive
tube onto Eosine Methylene Blue (EMB) agar plate for pure colonies. The plates were incubated
at 37˚C for 24 - 48 hours. Colonies developing on EMB agar were further identified as fecal
coliforms (Escherichia coli). Colonies with green metallic sheen were confirmed to be fecal
coliform bacteria with rods shape [11] . Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version
21.0 was used to analyze the obtained data. Prevalence and percentage was calculated for
microbiological contamination of water samples.
3. Results
3.1. Indicator of Bacterial Count per 100 ml of All Water Samples
In the study area, 408 water samples were tested, out of the total, 48.7% denoted a higher than
standard (10 coliform/100ml) count of low risk for total coliforms. On the other hand, 100% of
total coliforms have expressed fecal coliforms count above the norm (0 fecal coliforms/100ml)
for drinking water. Whereas 37.01% of all samples certified that the Enterococcus group
exceeded the standard (0 enterococci/100ml) for drinking water (Table 1).
3.2. Prevalence of Total Coliform, Fecal Coliform and Fecal Enterococci
The results showed that the highest prevalence of total coliform (8.27%), fecal coliform (8.02%),
and fecal enterococci (6.30%), was seen in surface water, seconded by household containers in
 rainy season. Whereas the lowest (0.95%) prevalence of all bacterial groups was observed in dug
wells during the dry season. Total coliform and fecal coliform showed 4.03% prevalence in
cement reservoirs in rainy season. An equal diminution in prevalence to 3.44% of total coliform
and fecal coliform was seen in dry season. Boreholes indicated slight differences between the
prevalence of total coliform (5.33%) and fecal coliform (5.31%) in rainy season whereas they
decline in dry season. Fecal enterococci revealed an increase of prevalence in boreholes (3.30%)
in rainy season followed by a decrease to 2.15% in dry season. The three groups of bacteria
revealed the same description of an increase of prevalence in hand pumps in rainy season
followed by a decrease in dry season (Table 2).
Total coliform count Fecal coliform count Enterococci group count
MPN Freq % MPN Freq % MPN Freq %
≤[Link]/100ml 209 51.3 ≤[Link]/100ml 0 0.0 ≤[Link]/100ml 257 62.99
≥[Link]/100ml 199 48.7 ≥[Link]/100ml 199 100 ≥[Link]/100ml 151 37.01
Total 408 100 199 100 408 100
Table 1. Indicators bacterial count per 100 ml of all samples.
MPN most probable number of bacteria, TC total coliform, FC fecal coliform, En Enterococcus
group.
Season Dry Rainy
Sources Surface Household Dug Hand Cement Surface Household Dug Hand Ceme
Boreholes Boreholes
icroorganism water containers well pumps reservoirs water containers well pumps reservo
al coliform % 3.42 7.01 6.46 0.95 1.86 3.44 5.33 8.27 7.19 1.75 3.45 4.03
al coliform % 3.01 7.02 6.46 0.95 1.84 3.44 5.31 8.02 7.10 1.75 3.12 4.03
al enterococci
2.15 4.45 4.25 0.95 1.02 2.17 3.30 6.3% 4.32% 1.83 2.45% 3.19%
%
Table 2. Prevalence of total coliform, fecal coliform and fecal enterococci in different seasons
and sources.
3.3. Bacteria Isolated
Five enteric bacteria isolated in total were identified. These genera include: Escherichia coli
(25.7%), Enterococcus fecalis (21.91%), Bacillus (16.72%), Citrobacter (3.91%) and
Enterobacter (4.56%). In all seasons, E. coli had the highest percentage frequency isolated
bacteria from different sources (6.32%) followed by Enterococcus fecalis (4.82%) with the
highest contamination in surface water in rainy season. Also Bacillus with the highest
contamination (3.92%) in boreholes and household containers (canaries) in rainy season. Not
frequently isolated bacteria were Citrobacter and Enterobacter that revealed constant frequencies
of (0.59% and 0.93%) in household containers in rainy season and dry season, respectively.
Surface water and household containers revealed continuous level of contamination by all
different bacteria during the two seasons. Cement reservoirs, hand pumps, boreholes and dug
wells were followed (Table 3).
4. Discussions
 Water is an essential and irreplaceable element to ensure the continuity of life and health.
Therefore, in urgency situation the security of the water must be guaranteed right through for
using at home, since interruption in the provision may be catastrophic. Thus, this study focused
to determine the microbiological quality of water at different sources and points of consumption
in Pelengana commune using multiple tube fermentation Technique to detect and count bacteria
that are designated as signs of fecal contamination and attendance of pathogens [13] [14] . The
results indicated that the sources of water analyzed were
Isolate
Seasons Sources Enterococcus
E. coli Bacillus Citrobacter Enterobacter
fecalis
Surface water 6.32% 4.82% 3.22% 0.93% 0.93%
Boreholes - 2.45% 3.92% - -
Household containers 3.01% 2.85% 3.92% 0.59% 0.93%
Rainy
Dug well 0.47% 0.98% - - -
Hand pumps 2.14% 1.33% 1.15% - -
Cement reservoirs 2.15% 1.85% 0.84% 0.93% 0.59%
Surface water 4.08% 3.13% 2.25% 0.93% 0.59%
Boreholes 1.23% 0.40% - - -
Household containers 2.87% 1.33% 1.00% 0.59% 0.93%
Dry
Dug well - 0.81% - - -
Hand pumps 1.56% 0.54% - - -
Cement reservoirs 1.87% 1.42% 0.42% - -
Table 3. Bacteria isolated from sources in different season.
contaminated with most of indicator bacteria with significant variation in counts. Among the
water samples examined, 48.7% express a total coliform, 100% of which contain fecal coliforms
exceeding the admissible level of WHO standard for these bacteria. This denotes excessive water
contamination and the probability of dangerous presence of very pathogenic bacteria such as E.
coli and Bacillus in water and therefore a high prevalence of diarrheal diseases in the
community. On the other hand, 37.01% of samples harbour Enterococcus group such as
Enterococcus fecalis that bring about urinary tract and wound infections. The number of
indicator bacteria (0 - 1800 TC/100ml) in this work is rather higher compared to other
researchers. Total coliform count of (16102) cells per100ml in drinking water in South Darfur
mentioned by Amira et al. (2010). Observations similar to those from Lomé well water were
reported in Meknes, Morocco, for fecal coliform bacteria [15] . This variation in count could be
attributable not only to the environment and conduct of the population such as the lack of a
system for the collection, defecation and infiltration of organic matter in the soil, but also the
difference in samples number in each study.
Total coliform was identified with significant variation in different seasons (dry, rainy) and
sources (water sources, water storage reservoirs). In a rainy season, surface water recorded the
highest prevalence of total coliform, seconded by household containers. This fact may be
attributed on one hand, to the runoff flows and human activities affecting surface water sources.
On the other hand, due to the wind blowing during the rainy season, which transmits dirt and
pathogens to unprotected storage containers (i.e. containers without lids), storing water in areas
that are not sheltered by children, insects and animals. A study in Zimbabwe showed that simply
covering the water reservoir reduced total coliforms by 50% in water stored in households [16] .
While lowest of total coliform were found in cement reservoirs, hand pumps and dug wells water
samples compared to the high prevalence in surface waters and household containers. However,
contamination of other water sources (cement reservoirs, hand pumps and dug wells) is
explained by poor protection of water sources and non-compliance with protection perimeters.
Similarly, the absence of appropriate sanitation system and surrounding pollution such as
agricultural land, cattle breeding, the existence of septic tanks and latrines are largely involved in
this pollution [17] . Evidently, contamination of groundwater by coliform has negative
consequences on public health. Thus, the authors stated that the bacteriological pollution of the
deep water table is more worrying because it could mean a general insalubrity of the
groundwater of the city, due to vertical percolation of the pollutants contained in the surface
levels. Groundwater pollutants have the capacity to move through soil particles to the
groundwater. Soil purification process can break, thereby rendering groundwater very sensitive
to pollution. Hence, boreholes, hand pumps and wells must be located at recommended safe
distances in order to prevent potential contaminants [18] .
In dry season, the decrease prevalence of total coliform in household containers is occasioned by
the heavy consumption of water due to heat; newly chlorinated water will be added to the storage
container day-to-day, residual chlorine in quotidian added fresh water will affect survival of
existing pathogenic organisms. In a rainy season, the increase prevalence of total coliform in
surface water, household containers, borehole, cement reservoirs, hand pumps and dug wells
noticed is likely due to leaching action of the rainfall [14] - [19] .
Fecal coliform were noticed exceeding the admissible limits set by World Health Organization
(WHO) for potable water in both rainy and dry seasons and different sources during this study.
Indeed, according to recommendations of WHO, fecal coliforms should not exist in 100 ml water
sample. It arises exclusively from the intestines of warm-blooded animals, including humans,
and its presence is the most accurate indicator of fecal contamination [20] . Although the
presence of Fecal coliform in water indicates fecal contamination, it does not identify the precise
source of fecal matters. There are several sources: manure, grazing, septic tanks, latrine and other
sources such as wildlife. According to our surveys of the water sources sites studied, we noticed
the existence of manure, septic tanks and pit latrines and waste of all kinds on the land around
the water sources. In addition, several animals were observed near the sampling sites (dogs,
goats, donkeys, oxen, chickens), which represents a fairly significant contamination potential.
All the boreholes, hand pumps and dug wells were approximately within a 50 m or less radius
from pit latrines, refuse tips and other social amenities. The presence of fecal coliforms may be
an indication of the presence of enteropathogenic microorganisms [21] , such as Salmonellae
and Norwalk virus [22] . Indeed, according to the WHO guidelines, any water intended for
human consumption should not contain E. coli or fecal coliform bacteria [23] . Water samples
analyzed in the laboratory throughout this study showed that water sources are highly
contaminated by fecal matters and particularly surface water and household containers. These are
propagated through the manual dumping of human and animal waste by humans and animals or
through flooding. Conditions for the collection, transport, storage, and handling of drinking
water can contribute to contamination. It is recognized that where elementary sanitation is
deficient, there is more probability of indicator bacteria from feces being introduced into stored
water [14] - [24] .
In this study, 151 (37.01%) of the water samples had Enterococcus group count above the zero
per 100 ml. High prevalence of Enterococcus group was seen in rainy season, the low one in dry
season with the highest prevalence in surface water. Enterococcus group delivers additional data
on bacteriological quality of water and increases fecal contamination of water [25] . Results
suggest surface source waters structures were often poorly protected, which greatly accentuated
the degree of contamination of these waters. However, surface waters can receive direct
contamination by domestic sewage from humans and animals or agricultural land runoffs which
contain fecal matter or chemicals [26] . It is important to note that in Pelengana commune,
particularly in camps for internally displaced persons, surface waters are the source of water for
both humans and livestock’s, there are multiple contributes factors, namely poor utilization, lack
of cleaning and different handling, which is not easy to avoid. Certain researchers indicated that
the percentage of sample testing positive for indicator bacteria may lessen after collection of
heavily contaminated sources due to bacterial death due to oxygen and restricted nutrients in
water [27] . In rainy season, surface water recorded in this study the highest prevalence of E.
coli and Enterococcus fecalis compared to low prevalence in other sources. Furthermore, other
coliform namely Bacillus, Citrobacter and Enterobacter species isolated in drinking water
enhance the probability of the existence of pathogenic bacteria. E. coli (25.7%), the first
predominant isolate is a significant public health concern as it is one of the main causes of
infectious diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infection, haemorrhagic colitis and haemolytic
uraemia syndrome [28] . Furthermore, Bacillus (16.72%) is associated with a variety of
infectious diseases such as gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract and respiratory tract infection
[29] . In addition, Enterobacter (4.56%) and Citrobacter (3.91%) species were also identified as
the main causes of cystitis, enteritis, pneumonia, diarrhea and food poisoning [14] - [30] .
5. Conclusion
This study investigated the bacteriological quality of different sources of water in selected sites
in Pelengana commune, Segou, Mali with special reference to displaced people camps. It was
discovered that all the sites provided water which were unfit for consumption. The percentages
of the three-indicator bacterial count identified exceed the standard limits for safe drinking water
in all samples. The degree of contamination was dug wells < hand pumps < cement reservoirs <
boreholes < household containers < surface water. These findings illustrate that contamination
varied with seasons, and the highest level was observed in rainy season. It is suggested that the
outright prevention of surface water consumption should be employed and monitoring of the
quality of water resources is needed. Therefore, population using these water sources should be
educated about the probable risks when water from these different sources is used for human
consumption. Education should also include possible means of treatment of water such as boiling
and use of chlorination tablets to avoid potential adverse effects on the health. Moreover,
population involvement through protection of drinking water sources from contamination could
contribute to improving the water situation throughout the region, thus ensuring a healthy
environment, for instance, rules governing activities within the area, particularly pit latrine
sitting, best management practices for farming, general hygiene and adequate storage practices at
household level.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the central Water Quality Laboratory (SOMAGEP) personnel for their
support in laboratory analyses. Thanks to the anonymous reviewers for comments on the
previous version which helped to improve the manuscript. Authors would also like to thank the
villagers for wholehearted participation in this study.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.
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