INJIBARA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

BASIC WRITING SKILLS HANDOUT

July 2021

Injibara, Ethiopia
INTRODUCTION
Writing is very important part of your university study. You will write assignments that may range from one
paragraph to essay; you will write answers on tests and exams that may be a few sentences or complete essay.
In addition to that, you will write senior essay at the end of your university study to graduate from the
university.
During this course, you will have many opportunities to study and discuss examples of English sentences,
paragraph and essay writing. I hope that what you learn in this course will help you throughout your academic
studies and beyond. For that reason, you should come to your Basic writing skills class every day with energy
and willingness to work and learn. Your teacher and your classmates have a lot to share with you, and you have
a lot to share with them. This course is stand upon with you by having the following objectives:

 construct meaningful sentences in English;

 learn to compose a paragraph that has a clearly stated topic sentence and details ;
 use appropriate coordination and subordination skills to relate ideas;
 identify and correct common sentence problems;
 write a well-structured paragraph essay of different types (descriptive, narrative, expository and
argumentative)

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 UNIT ONE

1.1. SENTENCES WRITING

A Clause is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate. The relation of a clause to the rest of a
sentence is shown by the position of the clause or by a conjunction. There are two kinds of clauses:

 Main, or independent, clauses and

 Subordinate, or dependent, clauses.

A main clause has both subject and verb, but it is not introduced by a subordinating word. A main clause makes
an independent statement and it could stand alone.

Example: Eagles are beautiful.

Subordinate clauses are usually introduced by a subordinating conjunction (as, since, because, etc.) or by a
relative pronoun (who, which, that). Subordinate clauses function as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. They cannot
stand alone but must be attached to a main clause. They express ideas that are intended to be subordinate to or
dependent on the idea expressed in the main clause. The exact relationship between the two ideas is indicated
by the subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun that joins the subordinate and the main clause.

Example: Eagles are beautiful when they soar high above the cliffs.

In a sentences writing, there are two types of clause: independent and dependent. A clause is a group of words
containing a subject and predicate and functioning as a member of a complex or compound sentence. An
independent clause functions on its own to make a meaningful sentence and looks much like a regular (simple)
sentence. A dependent clause cannot function on its own because it leaves an idea or thought unfinished. It is
also called subordinate clause. Dependent clauses help the independent clauses complete the sentence.

Sentences is a set of words that is complete in itself, typically containing a subject and predicate, conveying a
statement, question, exclamation, or command, and consisting of a main clause and sometimes one or more
subordinate clauses. In English, it begins with a capital letter and ends with a full-stop, or a question mark, or an
exclamation mark. The sentence is generally defined as a word or a group of words that expresses a thorough
idea by giving a statement/order, or asking a question, or exclaiming. A sentence is a group of words, usually
containing a verb that expresses a thought in the form of a statement, question, instruction, or exclamation and
starts with a capital letter when written.

In other words, a complete English sentence must have three characteristics:

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  First, in written form, a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period (i.e., a full stop) [.],
a note of interrogation (i.e., a question mark) [?], or a note of exclamation (i.e., an exclamation mark)
[!].
 Second, it must express a complete thought, not fragmented.
 Third, it must contain at least one subject (hidden/visible) and one verb comprising an independent
clause. (An independent clause contains an independent subject and verb and expresses a complete
thought.)

1.2. CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE

Every sentence, short or long, is made up of one or more units containing two main parts: subject and predicate.

Subject is a part of a sentence about which a statement is made. It is a noun or pronoun, with any of its
modifiers.
Predicate is the statement made about the subject .It is a verb or verb phrase, with any modifiers or
words used to complete its meaning.

Example: Our soccer team won the state championship.

Subject predicate

These constitute elements have three kinds or types: simple subject and predicate, complete subject and
predicate and compound subject and predicate.

Simple Subject and Predicate: when the sentence has one single word as a subject and one single word as
subject called a sentence that has simple subject and predicate.
Examples:
1. John fights.
2. They run.
Complete Subject and Predicate: When a simple subject and predicate is expanded by the addition of
modifying words, the subject and predicate thus expanded is called a complete subject.

Example:

1. Solomon the big brother of Selam is walking quickly to school.

2. Samson who is second year civics summer student is coming with his friends.

Compound Subject and Predicate: when the sentences have two doer of the action to perform two actions that
sentences will contain compound subject and predicate.

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Example:

1. Belete and Ayal chopped the celery, diced the carrots, and sliced the onions.
2. Amanual and his girlfriend are walking through the mountain and having fun.

1.3. SENTENCE TYPES

We can classify sentences into four with in two bases: in terms of their communication functions and their
structure. So, based on their functional category we can classify sentences as declarative/statement, command/
imperative, interrogative/question and exclamatory. On the other hand, in terms of their structure we classified
sentences as simple, complex, compound and compound complex.

1.3.1. SENTENCE TYPES (FUNCTIONAL CATEGORY)

Based on their communicational function sentences can be categorized in to four as declarative, imperative,
interrogative and exclamation.

Declarative sentence: makes a statement; it gives information, expresses/describes ideas, things, events, persons
or places. Moreover, this type of sentence ends with a period.

Example:

1. The house will be built on a hill.

2. They will come by tomorrow.

Imperative sentence: An imperative sentence gives a command or order to do something. Sometimes the
subject of an imperative sentence (you) is understood.

Example:

1. Abayneh, try the other door.

2. Look in the closet. (You, look in the closet.)

Interrogative sentence: An interrogative sentence asks a question. It usually needs answer from another body.
An interrogative sentence ends with a question mark.

Example:

1. How did you find the card?

2. Is she the new teacher?

Exclamatory sentence: An exclamatory sentence shows strong feeling, emotion, and excitement or admire. An
exclamatory sentence ends with an exclamation mark.
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Example:

1. The monster is attacking!

2. What an amazing music!
Activity
Identify each of the following sentences as Declarative (D), Imperative (I), Interrogative (In), or
Exclamatory (E).
1. Submit your assignment by next week
2. Among my classmates are Chaltu, Boni, Amaz, and Kemal
3. Do you know the name of the student who won Gold Medal from Ambo University
4. Relax and drive safely
5. What an excellent piece of drawing you made
6. Please, study hard.

1.3.2. SENTENCES TYPE (STRUCTURE CATEGORY)

According to their structure or containment of clause, sentences can be classified as simple, complex compound
and compound complex.

Simple Sentence is a sentence consisting of one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be
compound. It, in other words, is one main clause.

Example:

1. The players arrived.

2. The big tree in front of our house is a permanent house for thousands of birds.

NB. Do not be confused by the length of a sentence. You should simply count the number of clauses in the
sentence.

Compound Sentence is a sentence which consists of two (sometimes more) independent clauses connected with
a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, yet, so) or a conjunctive adverb such as moreover, thus,
therefore, consequently, indeed, moreover, furthermore.

• A comma (,) comes before the conjunction in a compound sentence.

• The coordinating conjunction shows the relationship between the two independent clauses of the
sentence.

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Here are examples of compound sentences with different coordinating conjunctions.

 I’m heading for Guder tonight, and I won’t be back for a month.
 I’m heading for Guder tonight, so I won’t be seeing you for a month.
 I’m heading for Guder tonight, but I’ll come right back.
 Roba is a clever student, yet he could be doing even better.
 Roba is a clever student, so we expect him to score ‘A’ in all subjects.
 Roba is a clever student, for he studies hard and grasps concepts well.
 We could call a taxi to get us, or we could walk sixteen blocks to the restaurant.

Complex Sentence is a sentence which consists of one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

Example:

1. He met a student who left school last year. (adjective clause)

2. After I took a nap, I felt better. (adverb clause)

Compound-Complex Sentence is a sentence which consists of two independent clauses with one or more
subordinate clauses.

Example:

1. Although I have never played tennis, I planned to start taking lessons next year; I really need the aerobic
exercise that tennis provides.
2. Although I have never played tennis, I really need the exercise, so I planned to start taking lessons next
year.
Activity
Identify each of the following sentences as Simple Sentence, Compound Sentence, Complex
Sentence, or Compound Complex Sentence.
1. When the sky darkened, the wind blew, and the leaves fell.
2. Because of lack of money, the students were unable to conduct research on all the research
thematic areas that left many areas excluded.
3. I would like to do it; however, I have no time.
4. Genzebe runs and plays ground tennis every morning.
5. A good student will always carry out the command of his teacher.
6. Because it was a hot day, Ababo ordered a cold mirinda, and she drank it at once.
7. Sarah was a brilliant student but did not expect to go to college.
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 8. Mary and I remained hungry and tired, but we still worked hard.
9. The young girl and her brother viciously kicked the dog down the stairs and laughed nervously.
10. The movie was good because it was the story of human life, but I enjoyed the book more.
11. Tura broke his leg when his car hit the tree.
12. Hanna bought her dress after she fought with her mother.

1.4. SENTENCE COMBINATION

In writing, you are required to keep the interest of your reader. One of the mechanisms to do this is that you
have to vary the length of your sentences. To vary the length of your sentences, you should combine two or
more short sentences in to one. Two or more ideas can be connected in a sentence by two sentences
combination methods: coordination and subordination. Sentences have to be combined to avoid the boredom
that would surely result if all sentences were brief and of equal length.

1.4.1. Coordination
Coordination is a method of joining two independent sentences by using coordinators. In coordination, the
status of the sentences is not reduced when they are combined. In other words, when they are combined, they
still remain independent clauses. The linking devices (coordinators) we use in coordination are: coordinating
conjunctions, correlative conjunctions and adverb conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions is a word that joins grammatically equivalent structures. You can join a pair or
series of nouns, verbs, or independent clauses. Each element of the pair or series must have the same
grammatical structure. Seven common coordinating conjunctions and their meanings are listed below.

Coordinatin The meaning of Coordinating conjunctions and examples

g
conjunctions
A more formal word for because, this shows a result-cause relationship between two
For independent clauses. It shows logical consequence; it has the same meaning as because, the
reason why.
The driver couldn’t control the speed of the car, for he was totally drunk.
And Shows equality between the two ideas. It shows addition; it has the same meaning as in
addition, along with
Yesterday, I saw movie, and I visited my friends.

Shows equality of two negative ideas. It shows an addition of a negative point. (Note: you must
Nor reverse the normal subject- verb positions in the second clause when using nor).
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 The patient didn’t his dinner, nor did he eat his lunch.

Shows opposition or contrast between two ideas. It has the same meaning as however, except,
But on the other hand
She studied hard, but she failed the examination.

shows alternatives or choices

Or You must be early, or you will miss the bus.

shows opposition; also shows emphasis (a stronger but)

Yet There are many parking place in Injibara University, yet no one has car.

Shows cause and effect relationship. It has the same meaning as therefore, as a result. X
So happened, so Y happened.
Azeb studied hard, so she scored a good grade.

Note: When you use the above coordinating conjunctions to join complete sentences, use a comma before the
coordinators.

Activities: In the space provided, write an appropriate coordinating conjunction.

1. Everyone wants a tax cut, __________ no one wants to give up any government services.
2. The runner admitted taking steroids, __________ he was forced to give up his medals.
3. You must read the paper every day, _________ you don’t know what is going on in the world.
4. Members of the churches met for dinner, ________ they held an interfaith service.
5. Employers do not want the theft, ___________do they want the expense and bad publicity of having an
employee arrested.
6. You should return the paper on time, __________ you will lose a letter grade for lateness.

Correlative conjunctions are coordinating words those work in pairs to join words, phrases, and sentences. The
most common correlative pairs are the followings.

Correlative conjunctions meaning meaning

Either……..or one of the two

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 Neither ……nor none of the two
Both………and both
Whether…….or dilemma
Not only…..but also both
NB: The combination not only/but also is similar to both/and because it shows that both items presented are
included. However, the item after not only is normally something we expect the speaker to say, whereas the
item after but also is often something unexpected.

Not only…..but also: is called a correlative conjunction. It is used to connect and emphasize 2 words or 2
phrases at the same position. Both two phrases are being presented by the writer as surprising or unexpected,
with the second one being even more surprising than the first. We use “not only……but also” to give more
information. It can be used to list adjective qualities, nouns or verbs, to show complementary qualities,
quantities or actions, events and states.

We use it when we have two things and we want to give a little extra emphasis to the second thing because it’s
even better, or even worse, or more surprising, or more impressive, or more shocking than the first thing.

Activities: Fill in the blanks using correlative conjunctions.

1. He has to decide whether to go to college or get a job.

2. ______________ my teacher ______________ my principal has met my mom.
3. We found ____________ shells ______________pebbles at the beach.
4. She has ______________talent ______________ a solid work ethic.
5. I have to ____________ clean my room ____________do the dishes.
6. She is ______________ upset ______________ not happy

Adverb Conjunctions is an adverb used to relate and connect main clauses in a sentence. Conjunctive adverbs,
unlike coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, are the only ones that can be moved from the beginning of
a clause to another position in the clause without changing the clause’s meaning. In other words, they occupy
different positions within the main clause in which they stand. A conjunctive adverb (e.g. however,
nevertheless, therefore, moreover, likewise, furthermore, consequently, etc.) can be used at the beginning,
middle, or end of a single independent clause. The beginning or middle is preferred to the end position.

Most adverb conjunctions are preceded by a semi colon and followed by a comma. There are some exceptions,
however. The adverb conjunctions like still and also are not preceded by a semicolon. Some other adverb
conjunctions like otherwise and then are preceded by a semi colon but not followed by a comma.

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  My alarm didn’t go off. Also, I had trouble starting the car.
 He has treated you badly still, he is your brother.
 John must be sick; otherwise he would be here.
 She made coffee; then she cooked breakfast.

Common conjunctive adverbs are:

Use Conjunctive adverbs

Adding Ideas Additionally, also, besides, furthermore, in addition,

moreover

Cause and Effect Accordingly, consequently, hence, therefore, thus

Clarifying a Point for example, for instance, namely, that is

Comparing Two Ideas Likewise, similarly

Contrasting Ideas However, instead, nevertheless, rather, regardless, still

Emphasizing a Point Again, certainly, indeed, moreover, of course

Alternative Instead, otherwise

Sequencing Events First, next, finally, then, after

Show Time Beforehand, meanwhile, lately, now, since

To maintain the desired relationship between independent clauses, see the following chart to know the meaning
of coordinating and adverb conjunctions.

Meaning coordinating conjunction adverb conjunction

Addition ,and ; furthermore,
; moreover,
Contrast ,but ; however,
,yet ;nevertheless,
Alternative ,or ; instead,
,nor [negative] ; otherwise,
Result ,so ; therefore,
; consequently,
; thus,
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In the space provided, use the appropriate conjunctive adverbs. Be sure to punctuate it properly

1. Sunshine Construction Company is building a plant in Nazareth ___________it is planning to build

another in Bahir Dar within three years.
2. Most of our customers like our new products___________Tana Wholesale Trade Corporation has
shown a great interest in three of our products.
3. A computer manufacturing plant is opening in Cairo___________there will be one hundred new jobs
available in September.
4. Bahir Dar is growing fast ___________Debremarkos is slowly growing town.
5. Everyone liked the hotel ___________no one was able to pay the required price.
6. Ato Bekele must be in Addis Abeba on June13___________he cannot attend the monthly status meeting
here on that day.

1.4.2. Subordination
Subordination is the joining of an independent clause and a dependent clause in the same sentence by using
subordinators. In subordination, the status of one of the sentences to be combined is reduced in to a subordinate
(dependent) one. The linking devices we use in subordination are subordinating conjunctions and relative
pronouns.

Subordinating Conjunction is a kind of conjunction that joins subordinate clauses with independent clauses.
Here the subordinate clauses cannot stand alone; they must be joined to an independent clause to be
grammatically correct. They tell when, where, why, how, and to what extent. When a writer wants to emphasize
the idea in one clause over the other, the most important idea is contained within the independent clause, and
lesser ideas are written in the dependent clauses. More often we use a subordinating conjunction to show a
difference in importance and strength of ideas. When subordinating conjunctions are added at the beginning of
independent clause, the independent clause becomes a dependent clause.

Meaning Subordinating Conjunction

cause because, since, as
contrast/ as though, even though, though, even if, whereas, while, although
concession
condition even if, if, as if, as long as, provided that, unless, provided

result that, so that, in order that

time after, until, as soon as, before, since, when, while, once, whenever, after

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 place where, wherever
comparison as, than, as…..as
Join the following sentences using the most appropriate subordinating conjunctions.
if before while because although in order that

1. I took the rapid - reading course

I could not read textbooks quickly enough to keep up with my daily assignments.
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Gedefew had to walk five miles to get help.
His car broke down on a deserted stretch of country road.
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Jemal was working all day as a school teacher.
His little daughter was playing with other young children in a day - care center.
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Ethiopian Socialism was an early school of modern thought in Europe.
Ethiopian Socialism has few followers today.
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Lions spend most of their time sleeping and resting.
Most people picture lions constantly stalking prey.
______________________________________________________________________________
6. The expert spoke to the farmers slowly and simply.
Every farmer could understand what he was saying.
______________________________________________________________________________
7. Meron reaches home quickly.
She will tell her father about the accident.
______________________________________________________________________________
Relative pronouns are words used to combine two clauses into one. Besides combining the two clauses, the
relative pronoun acts as the subject or object of the verb in the relative clause. Relative pronouns help us to
combining simple sentences to create complex structures. Like the other subordinating conjunctions relative
pronouns are used to join subordinate clauses with independent sentences.

Example: The boy solved the puzzle. He was praised by the teacher.

The boy who solved the puzzle was praised by the teacher.

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Use the relative pronouns in the box to complete the sentences

who(m) that which where when whose

1. The doctor _______ examined the child was very cool.
2. I live in Injibara, _______ is a densely populated town.
3. Belay teaches a class of students _______ native language is not English.
4. Yesterday, I ran into an old friend _______ I hadn't seen for years.
5. Abayneh says he will always remember the day _______ his parents first bought him a bike for his
birthday.

IDENTIFYING & CORRECTING FAULTY SENTENCES

Definition

A faulty sentence is a sentence that is deficient in one way or another. When we read it, something sounds
incomplete or wrong. We may have difficulty understanding exactly what the writer is trying to say. For this
reason, it is really important for writers to use sentences that are both clear and grammatically correct. Writing
is for communication, and if the sentences are not communicating what the writer intends, there is a problem
that needs to be fixed.

What Is A Good Sentence?

A complete sentence contains both a subject (noun) and a verb (that subject's action). If a sentence is missing
either of these essential parts, we have a problem. A complete sentence is a complete thought. If the thought is
not complete, neither is the sentence. Also, good sentences are clear and fairly to the point. When we read good
sentences, we understand what the writer is trying to communicate. Faulty sentences can be one of the
following: sentence fragments, run-on sentences, comma splices, misplaced modifiers, and dangling modifiers.

1. SENTENCE FRAGMENTS

The minimum sentence in written English consists of a subject and a verb. Strings of words that either do not
have a subject or do not have a verb are called fragments and must be corrected. Another kind of fragment is a
dependent clause that is not connected to an independent clause. Look at these fragments:

1. Because I needed to buy milk.

2. John singing in the shower.

3. Dancing and laughing on our way home from the party.

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4. For example, a computer.

Fragments should never be used in academic writing. Here are some ways to correct the preceding fragments.

1 “Because I needed to buy milk” is a dependent clause. A dependent clause must be connected to an
independent clause. You, the writer, must decide whether it should be connected to the sentence in front of it or
the sentence after it, possible corrections are:

Because I needed to buy milk, I went to the store.

OR

I went to the store because I needed to buy milk.

2 In “John singing in the shower,” ‘singing’ is a form of a verb, but it does not have a tense. There are
three forms of a verb in English that do not have tense: the present participle, the past participle, and the
infinitive. ‘Singing’ is the present participle of the verb ‘sing’. To make this fragment into a sentence, you need
to change the present participle to a verb with a tense. Possible corrections are

John was singing in the shower.

OR

John sings in the shower.

3 “Dancing and laughing on our way home from the party” is a fragment because it does not have a
subject. In addition, the verbs are present participles. Possible corrections are:

We were dancing and laughing on our way home from the party.

OR

We danced and laughed on our way home from the party.

OR

Dancing and laughing on our way home from the party, we woke up all the neighbors.

4 “For example, a computer” has only a noun phrase (a computer) and no verb. You need to add a verb
and decide if the noun phrase is the subject or object of the sentence. Possible corrections are:

For example, a computer is useful for writing papers.

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OR

For example, I think having a computer is useful.

Activity Identifying Fragments

This paragraph has five fragments. Find them and correct them.

The History of Baseball

Modern baseball has an interesting history. Actually started out in England as a game called rounders. It made
its way to North America and was largely played in rural areas. By 1830, most urban and rural area teams that
played together, but there were still no official rules or even a standard plying area. When a group in New York
City published a book in 1845. It gave baseball twenty rules, two teams of nine players each and defined the
playing field. Simply called the New York game. Its popularity continued to grow, and during the Civil War in
the 1860s, the Yankee soldiers spread the game throughout the country. By the end of the 1860s. The name had
changed to baseball and it looked very much like the game we know today.

2. RUN-ON SENTENCES

Another common punctuation problem is a run-on sentence. In run-on sentences, two or more independent
clauses follow each other without any punctuation. Look at this example of a run-on sentence:

Cutting down the rain forests leads to the extinction of plants and animals their habitats are destroyed.

There are three common ways to correct run-on sentences:

1. Make two separate sentences.

Cutting down the rain forests leads to the extinction of plants and animals. Their habitats are destroyed.

2. Add extra works.

When their habitats are destroyed due to cutting down the rain forests, many plants and animals become extinct.

3. Add a subordinating conjunction.

Cutting down the rain forests leads to the extinction of plants and animals because their habitats are destroyed.

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Activity Adding Necessary punctuation

The following paragraph has no punctuation. Correct it by adding capital letters, commas, semicolons,
and periods. (Hint: There are six complete sentences in the paragraph.)

Cities can grow in an organic way or in a planned way organic cities are usually older cities they are called
organic because they have spread in different directions with no precise plan except to accommodate the
growing population on the other hand the modern planned cities are sometimes designed before they are even
really established in a such a plan careful attention is paid to the amount of residential and commercial spaces in
short there are two types of city growth.

3. COMMA SPLICES

A common punctuation problem is a comma splice. A comma splice is an error that occurs when a comma by
itself is used between two independent clauses. A comma is correct between two independent clauses, but only
when it is followed by a coordinating conjunction. Look at this example sentence with a comma splice:

My dad hung a bird feeder in the backyard, he loves to watch the birds eat from it.

There are four common ways to correct comma splices:

1. Put a period in the place of the comma and capitalize the first word of the next sentence.

My dad hung a bird feeder in the backyard. He loves to watch the birds eat from it.

2. Put a semicolon in the place of the comma.

My dad hung a bird feeder in the backyard; he loves to watch the birds eat from it.

3. Insert a coordinating conjunction.

My dad hung a bird feeder in the backyard, and he loves to watch the birds eat from it.

4. Change one of the clauses into a dependent clause by starting it with a subordinating conjunction.

Since my dad hung a bird feeder in the backyard, he loves to watch the birds eat from it.

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Activity; Correcting Comma Splices

This paragraph has four comma splices. Find them and correct them. Try to use each of the four ways
explained above.

Planting Roses

Planting roses is easy if you follow these steps. First you need to measure the diameter of the roots, next you
must dig a hole twice as big as that diameter. This hole should be so deep that the roots have plenty of room to
grow. Mix some rose fertilizer with the soil at the bottom of the hole, this is to help the rose to flower later. The
next step is to form a little hill in the middle of the hole, you are going to spread out the roots over the top of
this hill. Hold the rose firmly with one hand and spread out the roots with your other hand. Be careful not to
break the roots, they are quite delicate. While you are holding the plant with one hand, pat the soil down gently
around the roots. Continue putting soil over the roots until the area around the plant is filled up to a level a little
lower than the soil level around it. Finally, water your plant thoroughly. With enough water and some sunshine,
you should see your rose plant begin to grow leaves in a few weeks.

4. MISPLACED MODIFIERS

When words or phrases modify the wrong word or seem to modify more than one word in a sentence, they are
called misplaced modifiers. To correct a sentence with a misplaced modifier, move the modifier as close as
possible to the word it modifies.

Examples:

MISPLACED

Leaves floated gently down onto the lawn with dazzling autumn colors. (Prepositional phrase incorrectly
modifying lawn)

CLEAR

Leaves with dazzling autumn colors floated gently down onto the lawn. (Prepositional phrase correctly
modifying leaves)

MISPLACED

The big truck just missed a cat roaring down the road. (Participial phrase incorrectly modifying cat)

CLEAR
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Roaring down the road, the big truck just missed a cat. (Participial phrase correctly modifying truck)

Activity

Rewrite each sentence correctly by moving the underlined modifier to an appropriate position in the
sentence.

1. The swimmers on deck with black and white bathing suits are all on the same swim team.

2. Officials must dress in white uniforms judging the performance of the swimmers.

3. The champion backstroker stormed out of the complex being disqualified.

4. Spectators crowded into the stands carrying lunch bags and portable seats.

5. The authorities requested additional timers making an unusual announcement.

6. The swim team had practiced hard and long for the meet with the best record.

7. Swimmers congregated around the pool with a tense of excitement.

8. Standing on the blocks, the first racers waited for the sound of the starting pistol with intensity on their
faces.

9. Medals were given to the winners with the race and time written on the back.

10. One swimmer accidentally pushed an official into the pool paying no attention to where he was going.

5. DANGLING MODIFIERS

A dangling modifier does not logically modify any word in the sentence in which it appears. Correct a dangling
modifier by supplying a word that can be modified by the dangling phrase.

Dangling

Shaving in front of a steamy mirror, the razor nicked Ali's chin.

(Who was shaving in front of the mirror? The answer is not razor but Ali. The subject Ali must be added.)

Correct

Shaving in front of the steamy mirror, Ali nicked his chin with the razor.

Or: When Ali was shaving in front of the steamy mirror, he nicked his chin with the razor.
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While turning over the bacon, hot grease splashed my arm.

(Who is turning over the bacon? The answer is not hot grease, as it unintentionally seems to be, but I The
subject I must be added.)

While I was turning over the bacon, hot grease splashed my arm.

Or: While turning over the bacon, I was splashed on the arm by hot grease.

Activity

Underline the misplaced or dangling modifier in each sentence. Then rewrite the sentence, placing related
words together or adding a logical subject, to make the meaning clear.

1. Kicked carelessly under the bed, Almaz finally found her sneakers.

2. The latest James Bond movie has almost opened in 1,200 theatres across the country.

3. Working at the copying machine, the morning dragged on.

4. Tired and exasperated, the fight we had was inevitable.

5. The newscaster spoke softly into a microphone wearing a bulletproof vest.

6. The tenants left town in a dilapidated old car owing two months’ rent.

7. Sitting at a sidewalk café, all sorts of interesting people passed by.

8. Packed tightly in a tiny can, Hagos had difficulty removing the anchovies.

9. The woman picked up a heavy frying pan with a great difficulty.

10. I discovered an unusual plant in the greenhouse that oozed a milky juice.

6. FAULTY PARALLELISM

Parallelism refers to the repetition of grammatical structure. Parallel constructions are rhythmic and memorable.
In the following examples, notice how parallelism creates a pleasing rhythm when you say the sentence aloud.

WORDS: We saw the frogs swimming, jumping, and splashing.

PHRASES: Of the people, for the people

19
CLAUSES: Do as I say, not as I do

Elements joined by and, or, nor, for, but, yet, or so should be grammatically parallel.

Incorrect: They spent their time praying and work with the poor.

They spent their time praying and working with the poor.

Correct:

Incorrect: There is a great difference between dining out and to have a snack at home.

Correct: There is a great difference between dining out and having a snack at home.

7 Subject-verb Agreement Errors

A verb must agree with its subject in number. A subject that refers to one person, place, or thing is called a
singular subject. A subject that refers to more than one thing is called a plural subject. If the sentences subject
and verb does not agree the maintained sentences error will occur.

Subject-verb agreement errors often occur in the following situations: with compound subjects (two or more
subjects), when the verb comes before the subject, when a word or phrase comes between the subject and the
verb and with indefinite pronouns (everybody, someone…). To spot agreement errors, we need to make sure
that the number of the subjects and the verbs of the sentences are parallel or equal.

Indefinite pronouns
Always singular Always plural Singular or
plural

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 Each Nobody Everybody Several Some
Anything Neither Anybody A Few Most
Nothing Few More
Somebody No One
Everything Many Plenty
One Everyone Anyone All
Either Someone Something None
Enough
Example:

 Incorrect: Everybody wish to become a millionaire.

 Correct: Everybody wishes to become a millionaire.
Incorrect: The woman standing in the waves with the other swimmers win a prize for her endurance.
Correct: The woman standing in the waves with the other swimmers wins a prize for her endurance.
 Incorrect: There is four gas stations on the main street.
 Correct: There are four gas stations on the main street.
 Incorrect: Samuel and Sarah wants to buy a car.
 Correct: Samuel and Sarah want to buy a car.

8 Shifts in point of view

A shift in a sentence can be described as an abrupt, unneeded change in subject, voice, tense, mood, person,
number. There are five different shifts to watch out for three for verbs (tense, voice, mood), two for pronouns
(person, number).

 Shifts in verb tense: except for special cases where the intended meaning requires a change in tense,
maintain the same tense within a sentence
Example: She caught the ball and then throws it to the catcher for the out.
The sentence above begins in the past tense but shifts, without reason, to the present tense. So, we need
to use either of the two tenses.
She caught the ball and then threw it to the catcher for out.
 Shifts in verb voice: the voice of a verb may be either active or passive in a sentence. When a sentence
contains two or more verbs, both verbs should maintain the same voice.
Example: When the children turned the TV, a buzzing sound was heard.
The sentence above begins in active voice but shifts without reason to passive voice.
When the children turned the TV, they heard the buzzy sound.

21
  Shifts in mood: often occur with directions, where the mood shifts from indicative to imperative or
from imperative to indicative.

Example: Take tablet and you should call me in the morning.

Take tablet, and call me in the morning.
Pronouns are either singular or plural in number. In addition, pronouns are either first, second, or third person.
In other words, the first person is the speaker, the second person is spoken to, and the third person is spoken
about. Hear under are the kinds of pronoun shifts (shifts in person and shifts in number).

 Shifts in person: unless the meaning of a sentence clearly requires a change, keep person consistent
within a sentence. It usually occurs with changes from the third to the second person point of view.

Pronoun lists (in person)

First Second Third
I, me, my, mine, myself, we, us, our, you, your, yours, yourselves he, him, his, himself, she, her, hers,
ours, ourselves herself, it, its, itself, they, them,
their, theirs, themselves

Example: If someone wants play games, you must follow the rules.
If someone wants play games, he or she must follow the rules.
If people want play games, they must follow the rules.
If the meaning of a sentence clearly requires a change, then you may change person as needed.
Example: I stayed at the house, but the others left.
 Shifting in number: with your sentences, use singular pronouns to refer to singular antecedents; use
plural pronouns to refer to plural antecedents.
Example: When someone calls, tell them that I’m not at home.
When someone calls, tell him or her that I’m not at home.
When people call, tell them that I’m not at home.

Identify sentences errors type committed with the following sentences and correct them.

1. Expecting confusion, our plans were made.

Corrected:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________

22
2. Neither the professor nor his assistants was able to solve the mystery.
Corrected:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________
3. The child who has a rash.
Corrected:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________
4. I showed my dog to the veterinarian with the fleas.
Corrected:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________
5. Neither the explorer nor his companions was ever seen again.
Corrected:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________
6. The doctor performed the operation the patient died.
Corrected:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________
7. The car on the bridge which is green is mine.
Corrected:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________
8. Your friendship over the years and your support has meant a great deal to us.
Corrected:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________
9. On entering the room, the messages are easily seen.
Corrected:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________
10. Mary should jump at whatever is demanded quickly.

23
 Corrected:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________
11. There was an earthquake and all the cars are bumping into one another.
Corrected:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________
12. She wrote the introduction after the first chapter had been finished.
Corrected:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________
13. Read the chapter carefully, and then you should answer the questions at the end of the chapter.
Corrected:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________
14. If a student does not have good study habits, they will have a difficult time in college.
Corrected:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________
15. When one begins college, you experience many new situations.
Corrected:
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________

a. PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION

i. Punctuation
Punctuation is the use of standard marks and signs in writing to separate words into sentences, clauses, and
phrases in order to clarify meaning. The marks or signs are called punctuation marks. Punctuation marks are
signals to readers. When you speak, you can pause, stop, or change your tone of voice to make your meaning
clear. You cannot do this when you write. When writing, you must use punctuation marks such as commas and
question marks to make your meaning clear.
The use of punctuation marks can be very complex. Each punctuation mark can be used in many ways. Here are
the punctuation marks that are most commonly used when writing and the most typical way or ways they are
used.

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1. Period (.)
Use a period at the end of a declarative sentence (a sentence which states an idea).

Example: That was a wonderful movie.

Use a period to end an abbreviation.

Example: I think that Mr. Williams is a great teacher.

2. Question Mark (?)

Use a question mark at the end of an interrogative sentence (a sentence which asks a question).

Example: Did you like that movie?

3. Comma (,)
Use a comma to separate three or more items in a series.

Example: My history class meets each Monday, Wednesday, and Friday.

Use a comma to separate independent clauses in a sentence.

Example: We wanted to go to the beach, but it rained that day.

Use a comma after introductory words or phrases in a sentence.

Example: Certainly, I have my homework right here.

Use a comma to set off dates and addresses.

Example: My friend Jane, who was born June 18, 1992, lives in Akron, Ohio.

4. Semicolon (;)
Use a semicolon when two independent clauses in a sentence are not separated by a conjunction (such as "and").

Example: I like pizza; Carlos also likes pizza.

Use a semicolon between independent clauses in a sentence that are separated by any of the following
transitional words or phrases: accordingly, consequently, for example, for instance, furthermore, however,
instead, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, and therefore.

Example: I planned to study Saturday morning; however, the power in our house went out due to a
storm.

Use a semicolon when the items in a series of items contain commas.

25
 Example: I have lived in Los Angeles, California; Boston, Massachusetts; Trenton, New Jersey; and
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

5. Colon (:)
Use a colon before a list that is preceded by a complete independent clause. Some form of the word "follow" is
often used in such a case.

Example: On our next vacation, we plan to visit the following countries: England, France, Italy, and
Greece.

Use a colon to divide hours from minutes.

Example: I have an appointment with the doctor at 10:30 tomorrow morning.

6. Exclamation Point (!) (Sometimes called an Exclamation Mark)

Use an exclamation mark at the end of a sentence to show strong emotion.

Example: I am very upset with him!

Use an exclamation mark at the end of a sentence for emphasis.

Example: I have to go home right now!

Use an exclamation mark after an interjection at the start of a sentence (an interjection is a word used to express
strong feeling or sudden emotion).

Example: Wow! That test was harder than I expected.

7. Apostrophe (')
Use an apostrophe to indicate a missing letter or letters in a contraction.

Example: I don't think she will win the election.

Use an apostrophe plus the letter "s" to show possession.

Example: Please take good care of Brad's dog.

ii. Capitalization
Capitalization is the process of making capital the letter (s) of words based on the rules of particular language.
There are more than five rules of capitalizations:
1. The first word of every sentence is capitalized.
Example: We enjoyed reading the book.

26
2. The first-person singular pronoun I is always capitalized.
Example: My brother and I picked up the papers.
3. The first, last, and important words in a title of a book, magazine, song, movie, or other work are capitalized.
Example: She saw Snow White when she was five years old.
4. Proper nouns are capitalized:
 Specific persons and things: George W. Bush, the White House, General Motors Corporation.
 Specific geographical locations: Dashen Mountain, Kosober, Africa, Forest Park Zoo, the Northeast, the
South end.
However, we do not capitalize compass directions or locations that aren't being used as names: the north
side of the city; we're leaving the Northwest and heading south this winter.
When we combine proper nouns, we capitalize attributive words when they precede place-names, as in
Lakes Erie and Ontario, but the opposite happens when the order is reversed: the Appalachian and
Adirondack mountains. When a term is used descriptively, as opposed to being an actual part of a proper
noun, do not capitalize it, as in "The California deserts do not get as hot as the Sahara Desert."
 Names of celestial bodies: Mars, Saturn, the Milky Way. Do not, however, capitalize earth, moon, sun,
except when those names appear in a context in which other (capitalized) celestial bodies are mentioned.
"I like it here on earth," but "It is further from Earth to Mars than it is from Mercury to the Sun.”
 Names of newspapers and journals. Do not, however, capitalize the word the, even when it is part of the
newspaper's title: the Hartford Courant.
 Days of the week, months, holidays. Do not, however, capitalize the names of seasons (spring, summer,
fall, autumn, winter). "Next winter, we're traveling south; by spring, we'll be back up north."
 Historical events: World War I, the Renaissance, the Crusades.
 Races, nationalities, languages: Ethiopia, Oromo, Gurage, Amhara, Tigre, African American, Jewish,
French, Native American. (Most writers do not capitalize whites, blacks.)
 Names of religions and religious terms: God, Christ, Allah, Buddha, Christianity, Christians, Judaism,
Jews, Islam, Muslims.
 Names of courses: Economics, Biology 101. (However, we would write: "I'm taking courses in biology
and earth science this summer.")
 Brand names: Kurtu, Pepsi, Toyota.

5. Names of relationships only when they are a part of or a substitute for a person's name are capitalized. (Often
this means that when there is a modifier, such as a possessive pronoun, in front of such a word, we do not
capitalize it.)

27
 Example: Let's go visit Grandmother today. Let's go visit my grandmother today.
I remember Uncle Arthur. I remember my Uncle Arthur. My uncle is unforgettable.

CHAPTER TWO
1.1. PARAGRAPH WRITING
A paragraph is a distinct section of your writing that deals with a single topic or point. It is indicated by a new
line and an indentation. They usually start with a main idea and then give evidence to support that main idea.
Paragraphs offer coherence and organization to your paper. Different paragraphs will act as transitions and sign
posts to your readers. Remember that each sentence in a paragraph should somehow relate back to your topic
sentence, and that each paragraph should relate to your thesis. A paragraph is a group of sentences that fleshes
out a single idea. A paragraph discusses one idea in detail and aids the development of an overall topic for the
essay. Effective paragraph

 presents a single idea

 contains support in form of sentences that convey this single idea
 is strategically organized to maintain flow
 maintains your essay’s objective
 Informs and entertains your reader about your paper’s overall idea.

Format/Structure/Elements of Paragraph: to write effective paragraph, one should incorporate the constitute
elements that make paragraph effective. The constitute elements of paragraph are topic sentence, introduction,
body/supportive details and conclusion.

 The topic sentence is the most important part of your paragraph; it tells the reader the general idea of
your paragraphs and should essentially “hook” them into wanting to read more. The main idea and the
controlling idea of each paragraph are stated in a topic sentence that shows overall focus of the paper.
Topic sentence of the paragraph has it position in the writing those are at the beginning of the
paragraph, at the middle of the paragraph, at the end of the paragraph and at both the beginning and
the end of the paragraph. These positions of the topic sentence have their own symbol outlined as
follow.

At the beginning and at the end at the middle at beginning

at end

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  Introductory sentence: is the first sentence of the paragraph that incorporates the background
information of the subject. Moreover, this sentence is my hand the topic sentence of the paragraph.
 Supporting details elaborate upon and prove the topic sentence. Supporting details should be drawn
from a variety of sources including research and experiences, depending on the assignment, and include
the writer’s own analysis. The following are common sources of supporting details: expert opinion, facts
and statistics, personal experiences, others’ experiences, brief stories, research studies, your own
analysis, interviews…
 Concluding Sentence: Each paragraph should end with a final statement that ties together the ideas
brought up in the paragraph and emphasizes the main idea one last time. If the assignment is longer, it
should transition to the ideas of the next paragraph.

1.2. ESSENTIALS OF A PARAGRAPH

Essentials of a paragraph are the principles that every written text must fulfilled. There are five essentials: unity,
completeness, coherence, economy and verity.

 Unity: In order for a paragraph to maintain a sense of unity, the paragraph must focus solely on a single
idea, point, or argument that is being discussed. Therefore, the paragraph should not begin to stray and
develop new ideas. If you begin to write sentence that wander from the paragraph’s main idea, then it is
time to start a new paragraph. In other words unity means that having supportive details those talks about
only one single idea.
 Completeness: means a paragraph is well-developed. If all sentences clearly and sufficiently support the
main idea, then your paragraph is complete. Usually three supporting sentences, in addition to a topic
sentence and concluding sentence, are needed for a paragraph to be complete. The concluding sentence or
last sentence of the paragraph should summarize your main idea by reinforcing your topic sentence.
 Coherence: is the quality that makes your writing understandable. Sentences within a paragraph need to
connect to each other and work together as a whole. One of the best ways to achieve coherency is to use
transition words. These words create bridges from one sentence to the next. You can use transition words
that show order (first, second, third); spatial relationships (above, below) or logic (furthermore, in addition,
in fact). Also, in writing a paragraph, using a consistent verb tense and point of view are important
ingredients for coherency.
 Economy: In writing, word economy refers to careful management of the words that end up in your text. In
the simplest of terms, it means keeping sentences, paragraphs, and chapters as short as they can be without
degrading your storytelling or rhetoric.
 Sentences verity: Sentence structure refers to the physical nature of a sentence and how the elements of that
sentence are presented. Just like word choice, writers should strive to vary their sentence structure to create
29
 rhythmic prose and keep their reader interested. Sentences that require a variation often repeat subjects,
lengths, or types. Sentence variety reduces repetition in a piece of writing and adds emphasis to important
points in the text. Sentence variety can be introduced to the beginning of sentences by starting a sentence
with an adverb, starting a sentence with a prepositional phrase, or by inverting the subject and verb.

1.3. BASIC TYPES OF PARAGRAPHS

Because there are four paragraph types (narrative, descriptive, expository, and persuasive) the paragraph can be
used to describe or explain an endless variety of things. It’s important to know how to use each paragraph type
for the right purpose, though.

Expository (Just the Facts): The expository essay is an informative piece of writing that presents a balanced
analysis of a topic. In an expository essay, the writer explains or defines a topic, using facts, statistics, and
examples. Expository writing encompasses a wide range of essay variations, such as the comparison and
contrast essay, the cause and effect essay, and the “how to” or process essay. Because expository essays are
based on facts and not personal feelings, writers don’t reveal their emotions or write in the first person.

Example:

Understanding and solving the problem of illiteracy

Knowing how to read and write, or being literate, is a prerequisite for succeeding in today’s technologically
advanced and quickly evolving global society. Every person needs to acquire literacy in his/her early
development, because reading and writing are useful skills in so many daily activities, from reading
newspapers, medicine bottles, and product warning labels, to writing letters, emails, and reports. Being literate
also develops the mind, imagination, and critical thinking skills. However, many people in the world are not
literate, and many do not even have the opportunity to become literate in their lifetime …….

Narrative Essays (Telling a Story): In a narrative essay, the writer tells a story about a real-life experience. It is
concerned with a sequence of happenings over a period of time. The author writes to record an event/serious of
events usually in the order they occurred or in chronology. Narratives can be either simple-narratives of
facts/events-which have occurred really such as diary, journals, autobiography, biography, anecdotes,
adventures and historical incidents or plotted-fictional which are the results of invention and ingenuity such as
novel, short story, and novella. It can also be personal or institutional.

Sample paragraphs

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Yesterday, I wake up early in the morning to go to office. First, I got dressed smartly and had a breakfast with
my wife. Then, I got into my car and drove to work. As soon as I reached to office, I parked my car and walked
to my office….argumentative

Descriptive Essays (Painting a Picture): A cousin of the narrative essay, a descriptive essay paints a picture
with words. A writer might describe a person, place, object, or even memory of special significance. However,
this type of essay is not description for description’s sake. The descriptive essay strives to communicate a
deeper meaning through the description. In a descriptive essay, the writer should show, not tell, through the use
of colorful words and sensory details. The best descriptive essays appeal to the reader’s emotions, with a result
that is highly evocative.

Methods of writing descriptive writing: As we write descriptive essay, the best way to create a vivid experience
for your readers is to focus on the following:
 Appealing-to-the-Senses Description: Let the reader see, smell, hear, taste, and feel what you write
 Spatial-Order Description: Show the reader where things are located from your perspective.
 In addition, we may include at least three examples of figurative language (Similes, metaphors and
personification).
Similes can make our language more descriptive and enjoyable. Writers, poets, and songwriters make use of
similes often to add depth and emphasize what they are trying to convey to the reader or listener. Similes can be
funny, serious, mean, or creative. Following are some more examples of similes regularly used in writing:

A. You were as brave as a lion.

B. They fought like cats and dogs.

A metaphor is a comparison between two unlike things not using the word “like” or “as.” In descriptive writing,
the writer should use in his/her writing to make it vivid.

A. Her skin was made of cream and her hair of the finest silk.
B. The man was a beast.

Personification is the act of giving non-living things human characteristics. Here is a sample of a short
paragraph that uses personification to describe a house.

Our house is an old friend of ours. Although he creeks and groans with every gust of wind, he never fails
to protect us from the elements. He wraps his arms of bricks and mortar around us and keeps us safe.
He’s always been a good friend to us and we would never leave him.

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Useful adjectives for describing a person's appearance
 Age: young, middle-aged, old, elderly; in his/her early thirties / mid-forties / late fifties etc.
 Face: long, round, oval, attractive, beautiful, un-shaven
 Hair: long, medium-length, short; straight, curly, wavy; dark, black, blonde, gray, fair, white, plaited,
bald
 Forehead: high, low
 Eyes: blue, brown, gray
 Ears: big, small
 Nose: long, pointed, turned-up
 Body Build: tall, short, fat, plump, over -weight, thin, slim, slender, skinny, under-weight, broad-
shouldered, muscular
 Clothes: cotton, woolen, hand-woven, leather, traditional, western, colorful
 General appearance: handsome, good-looking; beautiful, lovely, pretty, attractive, well-dressed,
smartly-dressed, dressed
 Useful adjectives for describing a person's personality: happy, cheerful unhappy, sad, miserable
friendly, pleasant, amusing unfriendly, unpleasant, kind unkind, cruel, hard-working lazy, reliable,
trustworthy unreliable, polite, well-mannered impolite, rude, ill-mannered, honest, truthful dishonest,
crafty, unselfish, generous selfish, mean, clever, intelligent, wise stupid, silly, dull, quiet talkative, shy
confident modest, humble proud, boastful, arrogant…
Sample Paragraph: Harar
My favorite place in Ethiopia is Harar in the east of the country. It is the center of Muslim and situated
approximately 1800m altitude. For this reason, the climate is temperate. There are many amenities in Harar,
including cafes, restaurants, shops, markets, churches, mosques, and tourist attractions such as Rimbaud
House, the old town and Harar Beer Factory. The Muslim influence is strong in Harar. People communicate in
different languages, for example, Harari and Afan Oromo. The atmosphere in the town is lively and busy. To
sum up, the climate, facilities and atmosphere make Harar the best town foe me in Ethiopia!

Persuasive Essays (Convince Me): While like an expository essay in its presentation of facts, the goal of the
persuasive essay is to convince the reader to accept the writer’s point of view or recommendation. The writer
must build a case using facts and logic, as well as examples, expert opinion, and sound reasoning. The writer
should present all sides of the argument, but must be able to communicate clearly and without equivocation why
a certain position is correct. Argumentation or persuasive writing has its own step.

Steps:

32
  Stating the opponents view
 Stating the arguments of the opponents idea
 Refusing the opponent’s view-show the opponent’s argument is wrong
 Stating your personal view
 Stating your arguments (claims as strong as possible)
 Concluding remarks in relation to your argument

You can make your arguments stronger by:

1. using good premises (ones you have good reason to believe are both true and relevant to the issue at
hand),
2. making sure your premises provide good support for your conclusion (and not some other conclusion, or
no conclusion at all),
3. checking that you have addressed the most important or relevant aspects of the issue (that is, that your
premises and conclusion focus on what is really important to the issue), and
4. Not making claims that are so strong or sweeping that you can’t really support them.

Sample Argumentative writing

Most people in the world believe that education is about remembering things to take tests which measure one’s
performance against other people who have studied the same information. However, this idea no longer
matches the reality of the modern world in which knowledge is less important than creativity and deep
understanding. To be successful in the age of technology, education must focus on helping students gain
information management and innovation skills….

1.4. TECHNIQUES OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

There are different techniques that are used to develop paragraph: definition, exemplification, classification,
cause and effect, compare and contrast, process.

A. Definition: It is a process of explaining concepts or terms or ideas or giving meaning. It is a method of

restricting, making clear or identifying the meaning of a word/phrase.

Purposes of Definition

 To identify the scope or meaning of concept

 To avoid ambiguity (not to be interpreted in different way)
 To illustrate clearly the meaning that you intended to transmit.

33
There are three main types of definition: formal, naming and extended.

Formal: It is structured with concept + class + special features

E.g. Economics is a field of study which deals with how a society organizes its money, trade and
industry.

A sociologist is a person who studies the nature and development of society & social behavior.

Naming: It is structured with class + special features + concept

E.g. A field of study which deals with how a society organizes its money, trade and industry is called
economics.

A person who studies the nature and development of society & social behavior is named as a sociologist.

Extended: It is a method that gives more details by providing additional information and examples as
well as the meaning of the term. Two methods of expanding definitions are giving additional
information and providing specific examples.

E.g. A disease is a medical problem which affects humans, animals and plants. It is often caused by
protozoan, bacterial, or viral infections. Good examples are malaria, meningitis and cancer.

B. Exemplification: A technique used to support a controlling idea by giving example of what we mean.
Examples can be either factual or fabricated, but the purpose is to develop illustration.

Types of examples

- Single key-example (one example)

- Multiple examples (several)
- Explanatory
C. Classification: It is a process of putting people or things into a group according to characteristics they
have in common. It explains how several things are similar because of one or more characteristics they
have in common or discusses how things differ from each other on the basis of one or more distinctions.
It is a process of clustering or grouping or categorization based on certain qualities.
D. Compare and contrast: Comparison and contrast shows similarities and differences between two or
more persons or things or groups.
E. Cause and effect: Cause=the reason; Effect=the situation created or the consequences

Cause-effect r/n ship effect-cause r/n ship

34
  -caused -be caused by
 -lead to -be due to
 -result in -results from
 -bring about -the result/effect of
 -be responsible for
F. Process: A technique that is used to shows the steps or procedures to do something. Everything should
be ordered in chronology. There are sequence markers such as first, second, then, next, following that,
after that, finally…etc.

Logical ordering of ideas: 3 types of order

1. Chronological order---order of time, good for narratives

2. Spatial order-good for descriptions of locations; top to bottom, e.g.
3. Emphatic order-least important to most important; most common for argumentative writing

UNIT THREE
3.1. ESSAY WRITING
An essay is a piece of writing that is written to convince someone of something or to simply inform the reader
about a particular topic. In order for the reader to be convinced or adequately informed, the essay must include
several important components to make it flow in a logical way. The main parts (or sections) to an essay are the
intro, body, and conclusion. In a standard short essay, five paragraphs can provide the reader with enough
information in a short amount of space. For a research paper or dissertation, however, it is essential that more
than five paragraphs are present in order not to overwhelm the reader with too much information in one
paragraph.

Essay structure: An essay is a group of paragraphs written about a single topic and central idea. An essay is a
piece of writing that is written to convince someone of something or to simply inform the reader about a
particular topic. In order for the reader to be convinced or adequately informed, the essay must include several
important components to make it flow in a logical way. It must have at least three paragraphs, but a five-
paragraph essay is common length for academic writing. A basic essay consists of three main parts:
introduction, body, and conclusion.

Introduction: An introductory paragraph is the first paragraph of an essay. The introduction guides your reader
into the paper by introducing the topic. It should begin with a hook that catches the reader’s interest. This hook
could be a quote, an analogy, a question, etc. After getting the reader’s attention, the introduction should give

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some background information on the topic. The ideas within the introduction should be general enough for the
reader to understand the main claim and gradually become more specific to lead into the thesis statement.

Introduction should

 contain an attention grabber for the reader or at least make the essay sound interesting, may begin with
a quote about the particular topic
 Ensure that the introduction moves from the general to the specific in regards to the topic
 Provides the reader with a “road map” of the essay in a logical order
 At the end there should be what is called a thesis statement, arguably the most important component of
the introduction
 The thesis statement states the aim of the paper and may give insight into the author’s examples and
evidence

Thesis Statement: The thesis statement concisely states the main idea or argument of the essay, sets limits on
the topic, and can indicate the organization of the essay. The thesis works as a road map for the entire essay,
showing the readers what you have to say and which main points you will use to support your ideas.

Supporting Paragraphs: Most essays have three supporting points, developed in three separate paragraphs.
(Some essays will have two supporting points; others, four or more.) Each of the supporting paragraphs should
begin with a topic sentence that states the point to be detailed in that paragraph. Just as the thesis provides a
focus for the entire essay, the thesis statement provides a focus for each supporting paragraph. The body of the
essay supports the main points presented in the thesis. Each point is developed by one or more paragraphs and
supported with specific details. These details can include support from research and experiences, depending on
the assignment.

Body should

 Includes the evidence and support of the paper in addition to the author’s ideas
 Paragraphs must include a topic sentence which relates the discussion back to the thesis statement
 Logical ordering of ideas: 3 types of order
1. Chronological order---order of time, good for narratives
2. Spatial order-good for descriptions of locations; top to bottom, e.g.
3. Emphatic order-least important to most important; most common for college writing
 Ensure that transition sentences are present to create a good flow to the essay
 Include substantial examples and evidence to support your argument and remember to cite, cite, cite!

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  Make sure each example is relevant to your particular topic

Conclusion: the conclusion brings together all the main points of the essay. It refers back to the thesis statement
and leaves readers with a final thought and sense of closure by resolving any ideas brought up in the essay. It
may also address the implications of the argument. In the conclusion, new topics or ideas that were not
developed in the paper should not be introduced.

Conclusion should

 This section should wrap all of your arguments and points

 Should restate the main arguments in a simplified manner
 Ensure that the reader is left with something to think about, particularly if it is an argumentative essay

3.2. WRITING PROCESS

The composing/writing process is a routine that comes naturally and is not a step-by-step guide to which writers
refer. Being conscious of your own writing process is especially helpful when you find yourself struggling with
a particularly tricky piece. The process of writing begins with identifying areas of writing.

PRE-WRITING: in writing process the first step is called prewriting. Prewriting is a way to get ideas. In this
step, you choose a topic and collect ideas to explain the topic. Even during this initial step, writers must identify
the task, the audience for whom they will be writing, and the purpose for writing.

 Task: what am I being asked to write?

 Audience: who will read/hear my piece?
 Purpose: what do I hope to accomplish by writing?

After choosing the topic that you know, the next step should be searching for possible ways of getting ideas
down on the paper. You have to take time to spotlight your thought to generate ideas which will be organized
into the skeleton of a composition. This procedure can be utilized at any time during writing process as far its
focus is dominantly on generating idea that will be reused potential writing. Pre-writing involves gathering and
organizing ideas about a topic and may include the following: listing/clustering, brainstorming, discussing,
information gathering (library, research, interviews) and outlining. Generally, the prewriting stage includes
selecting a topic, narrowing the topic and gathering sufficient information.

Selecting a topic: The first step in writing an effective paragraph is to select a topic that you are knowledgeable
and comfortable writing about. It is worth spending time to think of possible topics and to discover what you
know about each before making a selection and beginning to write.

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To select the appropriate subject/topic the writer should consider the following considerations:

 Select it based on the background knowledge

 Consider the receiver (s) of the writing
 Consider the timing

Narrowing the topic: There are three strategies for narrowing a topic:

 Be more specific
 Ask questions
 Research

Outlining: An outline is a list of information you will put/incorporate in your writing. An outline is a helpful
way to plan a paper or to analyze it. It shows at a glance the point of a paper and a numbered list of the items
that support the point. Before writing an outline, you must not go through the other process gathering ideas,
editing them and deciding topic for your writing. Writing an outline can be a very useful way of organizing your
ideas and seeing how they will work together. The consideration that the writer needs to consider while he/she
outline:

 Being with the topic sentence/thesis statement of the writing

 Tell what idea will discuss show which comes first, second…
 End with the conclusion

Purposes of outlining

 Show you what to write before you actually being writing

 Help make your writing well organized and clear focused
 Keep you from forgetting any important points

Gathering Information: is finding relevant supportive details for the selected subject by using different
mechanisms. There are many different information gathering methods: brainstorming, clustering, free writing
and asking open ended questions.

 Brainstorming is defined as generating a group of thoughts or ideas on a particular subject that may
be used in a piece of writing. Brainstorming is an immediate inspiration of ideas. The writer makes
use of this scheme to first get his/her thought down on the paper either in phrase or word forms.
Brainstorming has paramount significance to provide examples that will further build up
composition in progress. It is a process of generating a lot of information within a short time.
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 NB. Never judge these preliminary thoughts and try to correct them. Feel free and inhabited in your
thinking since you will have sufficient time to look over what you have written and make a decision
on what is useful and not.
 Clustering: As it can be conceptualized from the term itself, clustering is making group or
association among things, ideas, concepts, etc. It is sometimes called mapping/mind mapping. So,
clustering is the technique which is often used to make connections among ideas so as to install
visual map of the thoughts about the topic prior to starting writing the actual paper.

To cluster:

a. Start by writing a key word from your topic at the middle of the page, and draw a circle
around it.
b. Draw a line from the circle and write ideas associated with the topic. Circle these ideas
again and draw another line and write more ideas associated to it.
c. Continue this process until you cannot think of other ideas or reach present time limit.
 Free-writing: Again as the word itself implies, free-writing can simply be defined as writing without
stopping. It is writing whatever comes to our mind without perturbing/disturbing about whether the
ideas make sense or grammatically precise. It is analogous with brainstorming since the center of
attention is only on generating ideas that will be exploited to write the actual text. Free-writing
involves filling pure paper with junks of ideas that will be refined and reused to prose the final
version of your paper. It forces you to write so quickly that you are unable to edit any of your ideas.
 Asking Journalistic Questions: This technique engrosses asking yourself as many WH-questions as
possible, such as who, how, what, when, where, why, which, whom, etc., to produce ideas that will
be used to note down the first draft. This system is highly indispensable to view your topic from
different perspectives since each question raises different issues about the same topic.

DRAFTING: Drafting is the first phase in writing the actual paper. It is similar with free-writing except it
involves using outline as a guide. It is writing freely without worrying about content, organization and language
errors such as spelling, punctuation, capitalization, grammar…. The center of attention is largely on getting
ideas down on the paper rather than striving for grammatical accuracy since there are other steps to think about
accuracy. The difference tween free-writing with drafting is that, in free writing we ca write whatever comes in
to our mind whereas in drafting we must follow the listings.

EDITING involves revising and reviewing. The revision process can seem overwhelming. When you edit, you
read through each paragraph of your essay a number of times, paying careful attention to your sentences and the

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words that comprise them. It focuses on correcting content and organization errors, and grammatical problems.
This is the most important stage at which you look at the overall content of the paper and judge the
effectiveness of your argument. Of course, you can still add new ideas if you think of something else while you
are reading your first draft. During editing you have to focus on the following tasks:

Add idea to support your topic sentence/thesis statement

Cut irrelevant ideas
Replace parts you have cut
Move sentences, clauses, words, etc. around

PROOFREADING: is reading for the last time to grasp errors which were not observed while reviewing and
revising. Letting others read your paper before submitting is also vital since different people see things from
different perspectives. Most importantly, at this stage the writers should check/ proof the coherence of the
writing. Remember that typing errors even the simple transposing of letters can change the meaning of an entire
thought and occasionally

REWRITING/ POST WRITING PHASE: is the final stage of your paragraph/essay writing. And at this stage
you write your prose in the formal manner to submit, publish….bring unintended humor to your prose.

3.3. TYPES OF ESSAY

Like paragraph types in essay writing there are four types: expository, descriptive, narrative and argumentative.

EXPOSITORY ESSAY: Expository essay is an informative piece of writing that presents a balanced analysis of
a topic. The writer explains or defines a topic based on facts, using statistics, comparison and contrast,
examples, process, and cause and effect to the intended audience. It can also be used to give a personal response
to a world event, political debate, football game, work of art and so on.

Important characteristics of expository essay:

Have a well-defined thesis. Start with a thesis statement/research question/statement of intent. Make sure
you answer your question or do what you say you set out to do. Do not wander from your topic.
Provide evidence to back up what you are saying. Support your arguments with facts and reasoning. Do
not simply list facts, incorporate these as examples supporting your position, but at the same time make
your point as succinctly as possible.
The essay should be concise. Make your point and conclude your essay. Don’t make the mistake of
believing that repetition and over-stating your case will score points with your readers.

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DESCRIPTIVE ESSAY: A descriptive essay paints a picture with words. A writer might describe a person,
place, object, or even memory of special significance. However, this type of essay is not description for
description’s sake. The descriptive essay strives to communicate a deeper meaning through the description. In a
descriptive essay, the writer should show, not tell, through the use of colorful words and sensory details. The
best descriptive essays appeal to the reader’s emotions, with a result that is highly evocative.
BAD THESIS STATEMENTS

 BDR has a nice smile.

 My room is really comfortable.
 I like our place in the country.
 I want to tell you about my grandfather.

GOOD THESIS STATEMENTS

 Everything about Amanuale’s appearance is relaxed and friendly.

 Even today, Agewina village reflects the old culture.
 My father’s gold watch typifies his personality.
 A bicycle is a simple, elegant, and beautiful machine.

NARRATIVE ESSAY: The purpose of a narrative report is to describe something. Narrative essays are
generally written in the first person, which is, using “I”. However, third person (he, she, or it) can also be used.
Narratives rely on concrete, sensory details to convey their point. These details should create a unified, forceful
effect, a dominant impression. More information on the use of specific details is available on another page.
Narratives, as stories, should include these story conventions: a plot, including setting and characters; a climax;
and an ending. It offers writers a chance to think and write about themselves.

Attribution of Narrative Essays:

A. Always make a plan!

B. Narratives tell stories! So, it makes sense that you should look for the following keywords: Tell about a
time when, write about a time when, tell a story, write a story….
C. Have three parts: before, during and after
 Before: tells what happened before your big moment!
 Always begin your narrative with someone, in a place, doing something!
 A good idea is to open your story with dialogue (a character talking)
 During: contains the “Big Moment”

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  Use the “second-hole” rule. (your big Moment should not happen until after the
second hole of your paper)
 After: make sure you don’t “chop-off” your ending! Leave adequate time and space to have
an actual resolution.
D. Remember to use Dialogue!
 Speakers’ exact words are always surrounded by quotation marks!
 Commas and periods go INSIDE quotation marks!
 Indent each time the speaker changes!
E. Limit the time frame that your story covers! Which of the following situations could yield a more
descriptive two-page story? One that covers the next 5 minutes of my life? The next five minutes of
course you’d be able to add many more details and descriptions during those two pages without leaving
out things and skipping time gaps!
F. Use time transition words to keep your story flowing! Essay graders will look for time-markers in your
paper. Use transitions such as suddenly, after, before, during, at that moment, seconds later, yesterday,
today, etc.
G. Push your paper’s grade over the edge with colorful vocabulary!

ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY: In this kind of essay, we do not only give information but also present an
argument with the PROS (supporting ideas) and CONS (opposing ideas) of an argumentative issue. We should
clearly take our stand and write as if we are trying to persuade an opposing audience to adopt new beliefs or
behavior. The primary objective is to persuade people to change beliefs that many of them do not want to
change. Choosing an argumentative topic is not an easy task. The topic should be such that it should be
narrowed down and it should contain an argument supported (with statistics, outside source citations, etc.
Argumentation or persuasive writing has its own step.

Steps:

 Stating the opponents view

 Stating the arguments of the opponents idea
 Refusing the opponent’s view-show the opponent’s argument is wrong
 Stating your personal view
 Stating your arguments (claims as strong as possible)
 Concluding remarks in relation to your argument

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Each argument you make is composed of premises (this is a term for statements that express your reasons or
evidence) that are arranged in the right way to support your conclusion (the main claim or interpretation you are
offering). You can make your arguments stronger by:

 using good premises (ones you have good reason to believe are both true and relevant to the issue at
hand),
 making sure your premises provide good support for your conclusion (and not some other conclusion,
or no conclusion at all),
 checking that you have addressed the most important or relevant aspects of the issue (that is, that your
premises and conclusion focus on what is really important to the issue), and
 Not making claims that are so strong or sweeping that you can’t really support them.

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