16 JOURNAL OF ARTS AND EDUCATION, VOLUME 8 NUMBER 1 2020

Barriers to Access Equity and Quality of

Education in Nigeria

Professor F. R. Haruna,
Provost, Federal College of Education,
Kontagora, Niger State, Nigeria.

Introduction
Education is a crucial factor in ending global poverty and
as such, accessibility to education throughout even the poorest
nations in the world becomes a pressing issue. With education,
employment opportunities are broadened, income levels are
increased and maternal and child health are improved. In
countries with solid education systems in place, there are lower
crime rates, greater economic growth and improved social
services. In areas where access, attendance and quality of
education have witnessed improvements, there has also been
a decrease in the spread of AIDS. It is a must-do issue to ensure
that every child has finished or completed primary education
and to enable every child to further develop, intellectually and
socially.
Developing countries usually suffer from remote location,
lack of infrastructure and inadequate teaching/learning facilities
and trained staff. These are all major problems that bring about
poor quality in education and lack of access to it. There is the
need for innovative methods of delivery which can help bridge
this gap and thus provide universal access to education.
Access to basic education lies at the heart of development.
Lack of education is both a part of the definition of poverty
and a means for its diminution. Sustained and meaningful
access to education is critical to long term improvements in
productivity; the reduction of inter-generational cycles of
poverty; demographic transition; preventive health care; the
empowerment of women; and reductions in inequality. It is
central to the long-standing and recent images of development
that depend on the capabilities that create choices and freedoms
 EQUITY AND QUALITY OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIA 17

that ignorance denies (Streeten, 1999; Sen, 1999). The basic

propositions that underlie these observations are well
established in the research literature and widely believed.
Universally, poverty reduction is seen as unlikely unless
knowledge, skill and capabilities are extended to those who
are marginalized from value-added economic activities by
illiteracy, lack of numeracy, and higher-level reasoning that links
causes and effects rationally. In most societies, and especially
those that are developing rapidly, households and individuals
value participation in education and invest substantially in
pursuing the benefits it can confer. The rich have little doubts
that the investments pay off. The poor generally share the belief
and recognize that increasingly mobility out of poverty is
education-related, albeit that their aspirations and expectations
are less frequently realized.
The general case for expanding access to education is
therefore compelling. Its recent manifestations in the MDGs
and the Dakar Goals confirms a consensus on the centrality of
education to development. However, it remains the case that,
the discourse that surrounds EFA and the MDGs is not grounded
in an explicit single set of propositions about the role(s)
education play in development.
The drive to improve the quality of basic education in
Nigeria has been given tremendous impetus over the last
decade. Examples of the Nigerian government’s commitment
to improvement include: the expansion of compulsory
education from primary level to junior secondary level in the
2004 Universal Basic Education (UBE) Act, and the subsequent
revised national policy on education; the apparent increase in
the number of children accessing secondary education; the
establishment of the Universal Basic Education Commission
(UBEC) with its associated advisory and funding mechanisms;
sustained collaboration with international development partners
(IDPs) such as DFID, UNICEF and USAID; the funding of a
major collection of studies in a wide-ranging review of basic
education in 2004; and the more recent establishment of a
presidential task force on education in 2011. In addition,
through a range of government initiatives, there has been
18 JOURNAL OF ARTS AND EDUCATION, VOLUME 8 NUMBER 1 2020

sustained effort at improving equity and widening participation

in education, increasing access to basic education among girls,
nomadic and Muslim children. However, given the size and
diversity of Nigeria, and the fact that the education sector is
still recovering from its neglect during the years of military
dictatorships, huge challenges still remain.
Despite all the efforts made by the Nigerian government to
provide basic education to her citizens, about 10.5million
primary school age children are reportedly out of school- this
constitutes almost 42 per cent of the primary-age population
(UIS estimate, 2010). School access rates show major disparities
across geographical regions . While about 37 per cent of girls
and 30 per cent of boys of primary school age in the Northeast,
Nigeria are out of school; only 1.6 per cent of girls and 0.5 per
cent of boys of primary school age in the Southeast, Nigeria
are out of school. Even within the Northern region, disparities
exist between urban and rural areas; as children in rural
communities are much less likely to attend school than those
in the urban centres (World Bank, 2013).
Universal access to basic education is far from being
achieved in Nigeria, especially in fragile states with weak
governance and infrastructure. There are still communities
where less than half of school age children complete primary
school and less than a quarter complete junior secondary
successfully. It has been observed that household poverty
remains the most common correlate of exclusion, through
gender, disability HIV status, social group affiliation, location
and many other forms of exclusion remain significant, often
interacting with poverty to create multiple deprivations that
demand integrated responses. Many of the children who are
enrolled are effectively excluded as a result of irregular
attendance, low achievement, overage progression and drop
out before completion of full basic education.
Physical infrastructure remains insufficient to provide a
secure, healthy, and appropriate learning environment for
children in many communities. Learning materials central to
the achievement of educational outcomes vary widely in term
of both availability and quality. Teachers supply and
 EQUITY AND QUALITY OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIA 19

deployment are often inefficient and sometimes compromise

the provision of effective and equitable access at sustainable
cost. The constraints and opportunities that impact on strategies
to finance adequate number of qualified teachers are often
poorly articulated with the political economy and public sector
employment.
Nigerian government and development agencies have
repeatedly fallen short of ensuring that all children complete
schooling successfully. Most of what must be done in order to
universalize access are understood, but often not applied in
practice. The most powerful reasons why so many children
miss out on their rights to basic education lie in the failure of
commitments to widen access to opportunity, mobilize
domestic resources and manage public services effectively
towards clear goal. There is no good reason why all children in
Nigeria cannot attend and complete basic education
successfully.
This paper is an attempt to discuss salient issues affecting
access, equity and quality of education in Nigeria with a view
to providing appropriate strategies of widening the scope to
access, equity and quality education.

Concept of Access, Equity and Quality of Education

Access
Access in Education is simply the difference between a
person who has access and the one who does not have access
to education. One goes to school, another doesn’t. One has to
go to a very far school, another goes to a nearby school. One
can pay for education, another cannot. Culture of the society
motivates one to go to school but restricts another. Similarly,
the school allows a child from one ethnic community but
restricts a child from another.
Access, according to Merriam Webster dictionary refers to,
“Freedom or ability to obtain or make use of something”. In
education, accessibility is about having opportunity to get
education, irrespective of any condition. Factors that may
prevent access are: Gender; Socio-economic background;
Ethnicity Disability and Environment.
20 JOURNAL OF ARTS AND EDUCATION, VOLUME 8 NUMBER 1 2020

Barriers to Access to Education

There are many barriers that hinder the provision of access
to education. These may stem from social, economic, cultural
and political areas. One of the barriers is derived from access
to the education system itself. Schools have to be able to offer
comfortable environments/settings in order to stimulate the
learning experience of all pupils. For example, countries’
infrastructure, sufficient school buildings, adequate teachers,
learning materials, interesting educational content, basic utilities
such as electricity, water and sanitary facilities. Moreover, it is
also important to give proper training and support to teachers.

Poverty
Poverty is one of the major problems in developing nations.
One of the reasons why children are out of school is because
families are not able to pay for their children’s education. They
usually have to choose between attending school or to work in
order to support their families. Another critical issue related to
poverty is poor nutrition which leads to illnesses, obstructing
educational capabilities.
A report from UNESCO shows that there is a reason why
children in developing nations are not attending school. It is
indicated that regional non-enrollment percentages vary in the
incidence of child labour, with Africa taking top place (41%),
followed by Asia (21%) and Latin America (17%). In Africa,
population growth, a weak economy, famine and armed conflict
have contributed to keeping child labour high and school
attendance low.

Financial Barrier
Education is seen as a key instrument for achieving Nigeria’s
national development goals of sustained, equitable socio-
economic development and the eradication of poverty (FME
2004a; FME 2009a; FME 2011a). As a proportion of GDP,
Nigeria’s expenditure on education by both regional and global
standards is high (World Bank 2006). However, as a percentage
of total federal spending on the education budget has recently
been decreasing (FME 2011a; UNICEF/UIS 2012). Nevertheless,
 EQUITY AND QUALITY OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIA 21

billions of Naira have been spent, and yet there has been an
increase in the number of children out of school.
To support the efforts of government in increasing access to
education, funds also came from several international donors
such as the UK Department for International Development
(DFID), the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA),
UNESCO, UNICEF, US Agency for International Development
(USAID), and the World Bank. However, there seems to be a
severe lack of requisite finances for education, particularly at
State levels. Most local governments and schools have
inadequate capacity and financial resources with which to
manage primary education (ESSPIN & UKAid, 2010).
According to World Bank (2013) report, total public spending
on education in 2006 for instance, was estimated at 5 per cent
of gross domestic product (GDP) and 12.5 per cent of total
public spending, well below the recommended Education for
All (EFA) threshold of 20 per cent. More worrisome is the fact
that a large proportion, often about 90 per cent, of the total
public expenditures on education – which is severely
inadequate – is absorbed by salaries.

Social and Cultural Barriers

Social and cultural barriers in certain societies in Nigeria
also have an impact on children not attending school. There
exists inequality in education which sometimes could lead to
families having to decide about which of their children can go
to school. In this case, there is a gender gap as more boys attend
school than girls, who drop out of school. For example, because
of early marriage and pregnancy. According to UNICEF, every
year, at least, 9 million more girls than boys are not getting
education. This is due to certain countries’ tradition and culture,
which require girls to marry at a young age and even in some
countries as young as 14 years old. By the time they are married,
they need to drop out of school.
Another factor in hampering education to developing
nations is due to the fact that, in some schools, there are still
issues about intolerance, discrimination and violence. For
example, girls sometimes are often the object of sexual
22 JOURNAL OF ARTS AND EDUCATION, VOLUME 8 NUMBER 1 2020

harassment and abuse from their teachers as well as, from their
peers. Therefore, they prefer not to go to school.

Crisis and Emergency

Since some communities still cope with crisis and
emergency situations, proper educational services are
dysfunctional, such as, those dealing with wars and political
conflicts. Teachers and students often have to find some
locations in their refugee camps for proper teaching and
learning to take place.
The devastating effects of armed conflicts and humanitarian
emergencies also play a big roll in educational expansion in
Nigeria. Thousands of children are forced out of school in
conflicts affected states of the federation, and several hundreds
of thousands are forced out of school by natural disasters each
year. During the flood disasters of 2012 – 2014, only a small
percentage of humanitarian aids were directed towards
education. (Godspower, 2015)
The current Boko Haram insurgency in the North-East,
Nigeria has encouraged attacks on children, widespread rape
of girls and women, and systematic destruction of school
facilities. Sexual terror is used as a strong weapon of war. The
forceful kidnapping of over 200 Chibok girls from a girls’ school
in Borno State has made frontline news in the media houses,
in major cities of the world. Hence sexual terror is inflicting
untold hardships, fear and insecurity on young girls and
women, leading to untold damage on their education.

Equity in Education
Equality in education: sameness in terms of access to
education and uniform distribution of educational
opportunities. Freedom to develop personal abilities and make
educational choices irrespective of differences of behavior,
aspirations and needs. Where there is equality: no stereotypes,
rigid gender roles and prejudices that limit a student to perform
at his or her fullest potential.
However, equality does not often result in equal outcomes.
It can only work if everyone starts from the same level and
 EQUITY AND QUALITY OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIA 23

needs, the same materials, having the means to benefit from

the equality. Being given the same chances is not sufficient to
bring about true equality. Some needs more benefits, more
services and treatments due to their situation. Equity is essential
to achieve true equality. Equity in education is dependent on
two main interdependent factors; fairness and inclusion
(UNESCO; 2005).
Fairness: one’s personal conditions (women or men, reach
or poor, rural or urban, high income or low income, educated
or uneducated parents, able or disable) should not interfere
with the potential of academic success. Inclusion refers to a
standard that applies to everyone in a certain education system
(the same level of using language of instruction, the same
experience, the same learning resources or the equal chance of
participation).
Inclusion in education is based on many universal
declarations which reflect on universal human rights and the
rights of children. They emphasize: full development of human
personality, respect for human rights and fundamental
freedom. Inclusion in education is based on the four twenty-
first century pillars of education; learning to know, learning to
do, learning to be and learning to live together (UNESCO,
2009). UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights art. 26 states
the right to education for everyone, so it should: be free and
compulsory at least at elementary level, promote understanding,
tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious
groups.
The Convention on the Rights of the Child (UN, 1989)
stresses the need to eliminate discrimination to children with
disabilities. It also emphasized access to education and training,
health care services, rehabilitation services, employment and
recreation opportunities, conducive environment for enabling
the child to achieve the fullest possible social, cognitive,
emotional, cultural, and spiritual development and creative
capacities.
The EFA goals set by The Jomtien World Conference on
Education for All (1990); all children and young people of this
world have the right to education without discrimination.
24 JOURNAL OF ARTS AND EDUCATION, VOLUME 8 NUMBER 1 2020

UNESCO and other UN agencies, international development

agencies, international and national Non-Governmental
Organizations, have been working towards achieving this goal.
In addition, the UNESCO Convention Against Discrimination
in Education (1960) and the Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979), emphasize
that all children have the right to receive education without
discrimination on any grounds such as, caste, ethnicity, religion,
economic status, refugee status, language, gender, disability
etc.
The Dakar Framework for Action (2000) sets inclusive
education as one of the main strategies to address the question
of marginalization and exclusion The Salamanca World
Conference on Special Needs Education (Salamanca,
Spain;1994) places special emphasis on learners who are the
most vulnerable to marginalization and exclusion. The
fundamental principle of EFA is that all children should have
the opportunity to learn.
UNESCO (2005) views individual differences is not seen as
problems but as opportunities for enriching learning.” Inclusion
is precisely about reforming schools and ensuring that every
child receives quality and appropriate education within these
schools. In particular, inclusion is based on four key elements:
a never-ending process. concerned with the identification and
removal of barriers. It is about the presence, participation and
achievement of all students. The goal of inclusive education
enables an individual to participate effectively in society and
reaching his/her full potential; combat discriminatory attitudes
and build an inclusive society for achieving education for all;
provide an effective education to the majority of children and
improve the efficiency and the cost-effectiveness of the entire
education system.
A vast body of literature on the concept of equity in
education has appeared over the past decade, examining the
factors that helped to improve education for all, especially those
groups who for various reasons have so far been excluded or
are not benefiting from existing education provision. Numerous
 EQUITY AND QUALITY OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIA 25

authors use different concepts of equity, (Berne & Stiefel, 1984;

Jimerson, 2004; Sayed, 1997; Rubenstein, et al., 1992; Todd et
al., 2001).
Equity is a fundamentally important concept that can be
used to describe the fairness and effectiveness of the education
systems for any country (Rawls, 1972?). It refers to what is
socially just, and attempts to address unequal outcomes (Walzer,
1989; Sayed, 2001).
The principle of equity can define the specificity of disparity
(Weber, 2002), and advocates of equity may propose a process
of differential distribution to achieve the goal. According to
Berne and Stiefel (1984) and Chi and Jasper (1997), the concept
of equity is highly complex and multi-dimensional, which
tends to take on different meanings in different contexts. Chi
and Jasper (1997) define the term „equity as a normative
concept, and it is a purely empirical question to design a valid
and reliable instrument which measures difference or
inequalities that may exist between various individuals or
groups. Rubenstein, et al (1992), Rubenstein et al. (2006) and
Nieuwenhuis (2010) conceptualise „equity as an application
based on the notions of justice, fairness, and equal opportunities
regardless of race, ethnicity, religion, gender, and social
economic status. It is related to equal access to the same level
of basic resources of services to enable people or citizens to
participate in social and political processes (McGrath, 1993;
Berne & Stiefel, 1979a, 1984b; UNESCO, 2006).
Furthermore, Arnaud (2001) and Nieuwenhuis (2010), state
that the concept of “equity” is more associated with fairness,
impartiality, and justice with dimensions that make is possible
to consider it as instrument to bring harmony into progressive
societies and a means of solving conflicts in some legal cultures.
The identified three possible meanings for the concept ‘equity’
from Berne and Stiefels (1984) work, i.e. horizontal equity,
vertical equity, and equal opportunity , and the three principles
can be broadly conceptualised to include inputs, outputs, and
outcomes, as illustrated in Figure below
26 JOURNAL OF ARTS AND EDUCATION, VOLUME 8 NUMBER 1 2020

Figure 1: Input, Process and Output Variables in Education

Source: Nieuwenhuis, 2007.

“Horizontal equity” is a principle that focuses on disparities

across various groups in access and resources. The analysis of
equal educational opportunity relates a region’s wealth
(measured as regional product per capita) and population
density (a proxy for urban/rural location) with the objects of
equity. The concept of “horizontal equity” is the principle that
children in similar circumstances must be treated in the same
way, and thus receives the same level of support in the allocation
of resources; i.e. children from any family background or
situation should be treated as equals.
The concept requires that learners who are alike should
receive equal shares. This basic principle requires equal
expenditure or revenue per learner, so that equals are treated
equally. It is clear from both a physiological and psychological
perspective that this approach is simplistic as individuals are
 EQUITY AND QUALITY OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIA 27

not equal in all senses and it does not provide for learners with
special educational needs. Thus, the definition of the „equity
requires choosing a set of criteria considered “relevant” for the
definition of “equals” itself (Galbiati & Vetova, 2005).
The resulting definition is then that those who are in a
relevant sense equal, should be treated equally. As one can
imagine, this normative definition will certainly spark
disagreement over the selection of “relevant” variables.
However, by defining equals, all individuals possessing the
agreed upon qualities must be treated equally if horizontal
equity is to be achieved or maintained. The two concepts of
horizontal equity and vertical equity can be applied to many
policy issues and generally, horizontal equity represents equal
access to public educational services, irrespective of factors such
as, location, ethnicity, and religion, or social economic status.
In other words, equal treatment of equal needs.
In terms of MDG 2, formal education should give all
children, including those from marginalised groups, nomadic
pastoralist’s learners in particular, the tools for life that lead to
outcomes that are meaningful where they feel confident in using
the knowledge and skills they have acquired. Formal education
is about developing behaviour based on positive values,
understanding and respect for other people’s rights and culture.
This would be in line with EFA objectives and MDGs that
children should receive the basic education they need to enrich
their lives, expand their opportunities and participate in society.
The quality of the education they receive in terms of what they
learn, under what conditions, and the crucial role of teachers,
is key (Krätli & Dyer, 2009:14).
The concept of “vertical equity” recognises that learners
are not all the same, and that their starting points, relative to
other learners, should be considered in an analysis of equity. In
this case, providing additional funds for children who are
differently situated, with different levels of resources, should
be considered in order to achieve similar results (e.g. school
completion) for a particular group of children or a specific
region (UNESCO, 2007:24). It is a principle that allows
differently situated people to receive appropriately different
28 JOURNAL OF ARTS AND EDUCATION, VOLUME 8 NUMBER 1 2020

levels of resources by taking into account, for example, the

higher costs of educating certain learners in order to bring them
to a given level of output or achievement.
Some developing countries, for example, South Africa, have
created a vertical equity mechanism through categorical
funding of special needs programmes and weighting of
government allocations according to learners needs and the
circumstances under which they live (Berne & Stiefel, 1984:7;
Create, 2009). The principle of “vertical equity” means equal
access, irrespective of income or financial wealth. It may also
refer to the aim of unequal treatment for unequal needs. For
example, more resources are allocated for teaching children
from poor and nomadic families than for those that come from
wealthy or better off families. This is termed “affirmative
action” or “positive discrimination”, and is aimed at overcoming
the persistence of disparities between groups and communities
(Motala, 2005).
Thus, providing additional resources to those who are most
disadvantaged and marginalised is a programmatic response
to the need for equity and fairness. It allows children and/or
learners with different situations to receive appropriately
different levels of education services by taking into account
the higher costs of educating certain learners in order to bring
them to a given level of output or achievement.
Furthermore, Berne and Stiefels (1984) state that the concept
of vertical equity ties input equity to output equity. When inputs
are “adjusted” for the costs of educating various groups of
children as is often done when vertical equity is measured, the
adjustment is meant to indicate the amount of additional
resources that need (higher costs that are incurred) to bring
some learners to a given output levels. It focuses on the
treatment of differently situated learners, implicitly assuming
that learners require different resources to achieve set levels of
performance. Therefore, in some circumstances and for some
reasons, it is not only acceptable but also necessary to treat
learners differently, because differential treatment based on
these characteristics may be necessary to make an education
system more equitable. Examples include learners with learning
 EQUITY AND QUALITY OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIA 29

disabilities and learners from marginalised or economically

disadvantaged groups.
Berne and Stiefels (1984) definition of vertical equity, as
the appropriately unequal treatment of the unequal, is a more
difficult concept to operationalise than the approach of
horizontal equity. Not all learners have the same educational
needs, and funding strategies in developed countries like the
USA, and UK have components that generally address learners’
individual needs by providing more resources to the regions/
districts and local authorities, thus, serving learners who might
require additional or more intensive services.
The level of additional resources that such learners should
receive is often difficult to define, however. The concept of
vertical equity would require that schools serving large numbers
of disadvantaged learners be allocated more resources than other
schools to compensate for these higher deficits. Therefore, if
children from different backgrounds were to have similar
chances in life, they would have to be treated differently
(Hernes, 1974). Quality of results necessitates unequal of
provision and resources (Berne & Stiefel, 1999). The idea is
that the educational career of the individual would be
determined by ability and intents, and not by status and place
of residence. Hernes (1974) puts it, “all learners are equally
worth, but none of them are alike”. According to Hernes (1974),
the concept of “vertical equity” is a tool aimed at trying to get
everyone to the same level, while quality to equal opportunity
is about the right to fairness, and the concept mainly ties input
variables to output variables.
The principle of “equal education opportunity”, is based
on the notion that all children should have an equal chance to
succeed, and for there to be equal education opportunity,
learners should have access to resources that put them at “a
fair starting line” and conditions should be set up to allow the
possibility for all to “succeed” (Berne & Stiefel, 1999). In some
cases, equal opportunity is treated as a condition of horizontal
equity. Turner (as quoted by Nieuwenhuis, 2005:14) however
reminds one that, equal of opportunity and conditions tend to
produce inequality of results.”
30 JOURNAL OF ARTS AND EDUCATION, VOLUME 8 NUMBER 1 2020

Berne and Stiefel (1984a and 1994b) argue that provision

of equal educational opportunity focuses on the relationship
between per-learner revenues and region/district or learner
characteristics that might be considered “compensatory” for
the purposes of decisions of resources allocation. This principle
is also commonly referred to as “fiscal neutrality”; if disparities
across regions or schools exist. It is important to determine
whether these ces are due to “illegitimate” factors (such as
differences in local wealth) or other factors such as differences
in local preferences for education.
To provide equity and quality education; better teaching
and learning in a conducive environment needs to be created.
For example, adequately trained teachers, learner-centred
methods, appropriate class size, sufficient learning time,
appropriate curriculum and relevant materials are key. In
addition, better school environments are needed, like basic
facilities including water and sanitation, a safe and secure
environment, attitudes of respect and tolerance, nutrition and
health support and accountable management processes are all
ingredients for equity, quality education and social justice.
To underline the concept of social justice, fairness and
equity for everyone, special approaches for children from
disadvantaged groups, who are unable to receive a quality
education without special measures and attention to address
their needs are needed. Equity and quality in education will
mean doing things differently, treating learners differently based
on their individual needs, and this necessitates unequal of
provision and resource allocation.
Furthermore, there is a need to broaden the traditional
viewpoint of the concept of equity, to focus on the effective use
or deployment of resources with the aim of producing equal
results, not equal outputs. In this way, equity may be the
prerequisite of quality education, which requires unequal
inputs (EFA Global Monitoring Report 2005; UNESCO, 2010).

According to the literature (Krätli & Dyer, 2009; Fowler,

1999), if the world, developing countries in particular, would
like to achieve vertical equity and quality education, children
 EQUITY AND QUALITY OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIA 31

from parents with different resources (rich and poor) must be

treated differently (affirmative action or positive
discrimination), but there is always a trade-off between vertical
equity, horizontal equity and efficiency.

Quality in Education
The Dakar Framework for Action (EFA Global Monitoring
Report 2005:29) – the Quality Imperative, defines “quality” as
a set of desirable characteristics of learners (healthy, motivated),
processes (competent teachers using active pedagogies), content
(relevant curricula) and systems (good governance and
equitable resource allocation). The Declaration identifies quality
as a prerequisite for achieving the fundamental goal of equity;
therefore, MDG 6 emphasises improving all aspects of the
quality of education. The Dakar Framework for Action declares
that access to quality education is the right of every child, and
should be “at the heart of education” (EFA Global Monitoring
Report,2005:29).
Quality determines how much, and how well, children
learn, and the extent to which their education translates into a
range of personal, social and developmental benefits. Goal 6 of
the Dakar Framework for Action (2000) emphasises the need
for a stimulating pedagogy. It is the teaching and learning
process that brings the curriculum to life and determines what
happens in the classroom, and subsequently, the quality of the
learning outcomes.
Although, countries are striving to guarantee all children
the right to education, the focus on universal access often
overshadows attention to quality (EFA GMR, 2005:4). Yet,
quality identified as a key pillar determines how much and
how well children learn and the extent to which their education
translates into a range of personal, social and developmental
benefits.
The principle of quality refers to equitable conditions or
circumstances within the school or classroom that promote or
enhance quality learning for all learners. It includes the
provision of curricula, learning materials, facilities, teachers and
instructional experiences that enable learners to achieve high
32 JOURNAL OF ARTS AND EDUCATION, VOLUME 8 NUMBER 1 2020

standards. Furthermore, quality is also related to the absence

of barriers that prevent smooth implementation and a
conducive learning and teaching environment in classrooms;
rural areas in particular. According to Arnesson (2001), it is
difficult to explain in definitive terms what it means, since it is
deeply embedded in a society’s value system. Arnesson (2001)
refers the notion of quality of education as a principle of
“distributive justice”, i.e. that there should be “fair quality of
educational service” for social and economic advancement.
In his study “The concept of quality in education”, Sayed
(1997:26) argues that concept of quality in education is elusive
and frequently used, but never clearly defined. He goes on to
discuss how its multiple meanings reflect “different ideological,
social and political values” (Sayed, 1997:26). By critiquing key
principle approaches to quality education, Sayed (1997)
underlines what he calls the “value-bases” of any framework
for quality in education. Drawing from Berne and Stiefel’s (1984)
and Bunting’s (1993) principles, Sayed (1997) came to the
conclusion that, “equity in education does have an underneath
line and that line is defined by the goals and values which
underpin the essentially human activity of education”.
The point Sayed (1997) makes is that this should be the
starting point for an understanding of the notion of equity in
education. Thus, any discussion of quality, or action to improve
quality, must be preceded by an understanding of the learning
experiences of individual learners. Sayed (1997) also goes further
in that definition of quality are also determined at the country
level; countries determine the relationship between their own
quality standards and “internationally accepted” definitions.
Therefore, efforts to define quality in education and improve
learning must be weighed at the school and classroom level,
and involve ongoing, systematic assessment.
The definitions of quality as presented above are consistent
with the communiqué issued at UNESCO Ministerial Round
Table on Quality Education, that recognises that the principle
of quality has become a dynamic concept that has to constantly
adapt to unprecedented new challenge and needs as societies
evolve (UNESCO, 2008). Education systems today are
 EQUITY AND QUALITY OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIA 33

challenged by the changing character and growing complexity

of society; therefore, definitions of quality should not be fixed,
but rather evolve as conditions change.
This means that definitions of quality must be open to
change and evolution, based on information, changing
contexts, and new understandings of the nature of education’s
challenges. These constantly changing demands and
expectations have implications in achieving quality of education
for all (UNESCO, 2008). Therefore, systems that embrace
change through data generation, use and self-assessment, are
more likely to offer quality education for all learners (Glasser,
1990).
Added to this, is the usual focus on the ability of the
education system and schools to deliver on equity and quality
of education, essential knowledge and relevant skills, teacher
competence, the curriculum, teaching and learning
methodologies, processes in the learning environment,
examinations and assessment, management, administrative
practices, planning and policy development. These remain key
to the education quality debate (UNESCO, 2003). Moreover,
to achieve the desired quality, the inputs and process should
be of “quality” in terms of efficiency, effectiveness, excellence
and social justice. The quality output can be achieved only if
quality is ensured at each level of the educational process
(UNESCO, 2003:10).
Many definitions of quality in education exist, testifying to
the complexity and multifaceted nature of the concept. The
terms efficiency, effectiveness, relevant or responsive, equity
and quality have often been used synonymously (Adams, 1993;
Ecosoc, 2011). Considerable consensus exists around the basic
dimensions of quality education today, however. According
UNICEF (2000) report, quality education includes:
Quality learners who are healthy, well-nourished and ready
to participate and learn, and supported in learning by their
families and communities, including teacher quality support
for their tasks in schools;
• Quality environments that are healthy, safe, protective and
34 JOURNAL OF ARTS AND EDUCATION, VOLUME 8 NUMBER 1 2020

gender-sensitive, and provide adequate resources and facilities

are likely to support learners to succeed in schools;
• Quality content that is reflected in relevant curricula and
materials for the acquisition of basic skills, especially in the
areas of literacy, innumeracy and relevance skills for life, and
knowledge in such areas as gender, health, nutrition, HIV/AIDS
prevention and peace;
• Quality processes through which trained teachers use child
or learner-centred teaching approaches in well-managed
classrooms and schools and skillful assessment to facilitate
learning and reduce disparities represents a key factor in
ensuring quality school process;
• Quality outcomes that encompass knowledge, skills and
attitudes, and are linked to national goals and objectives for
education and positive participation in society.

These factors allow for an understanding of education as a

complex system, embedded in a political, cultural and
economic context. Furthermore, the factors take into account
the global influences that drive the discussion of quality in
education.

Conclusion
Access, equality, equity and inclusion are terms that are
related and interdependent. Inclusion is a means to provide
equal and equitable access to education. The declaration of
Education for All (EFA) which seeks to promote the right of
every child to education can only be achieved if there is equal
and equitable access to education. The system of education
must put in place facilities, conditions as well as setting a
framework for inclusive education. Awareness to all the social
structures about the need for providing equal and equitable
access to education to children is needed for making
communities committed and perform their responsibilities.
There is also need for the community to change attitudes
towards vulnerable and marginalized group.
 EQUITY AND QUALITY OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIA 35

Way Forward / Strategies

Improving access, equity and quality of education in Nigeria
requires that, robust attempts should be made to eliminate the
barriers that are limiting access and affecting quality of
education through good governance.
• Governance refers to the use of institutions, structures of
authority and collaboration to allocate resources and coordinate
educational activities in the society. The important elements of
good governance are summarized to involve transparency,
equity and accountability.
• Encourage active Cooperation between the political and the
administrative arms of government for the delivery of high-
quality service to ensure efficiency and effectiveness needed
for sustainable development.
• Education should not be used as a political instrument for
campaign, rather, proper plans, design and readiness for
implementation must be ensured before commencement.
Political will is critical to efforts to provide more access to
education to excluded communities.
• Adequate human and material resources should be
provided. Leaders and managers must ensure maintenance of
infrastructures, facilities and equipment provided. The school
management is critical to the effective use of scarce resources
available to enhance learning.

Sensitization of the People

• Public enlightenment and social mobilization for full
community involvement in implementation of programmes
geared towards providing equal and equitable access to
education is required for the achievement of access to basic
education.
• Problems of access due to disparities arising from certain
cultural practices and believes can be tackled through
sensitization. There is the need for the community to change
attitude toward vulnerable and marginalized groups.
Teacher Supply and Retention
• Quality education should be ensured through quality and
36 JOURNAL OF ARTS AND EDUCATION, VOLUME 8 NUMBER 1 2020

quantity teacher supply. Teachers should be updated regularly

through in-service training, workshops, seminars and
conferences for better service delivery and to enhance
professionalism. Teacher supply and deployment should be
sufficient, balanced, equitable and efficient. Teacher motivation
should be seen as a necessary tool for teacher’s effectiveness.
• Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria (TRCN) must
ensure that set targets are achieved for quality teachers in
Nigeria.

Curriculum
• The curriculum should be reviewed periodically and must
be properly guided to respond to the needs of the society.
Inclusive curriculum should address the child’s cognitive,
emotional, social and creative development. Change and
modify content, approaches and strategies and structures in
order to cover all children of the appropriate age range to ensure
equity and quality in education.

Funding
• Government of Nigeria should comply with UNESCO’s
guide lines of 26% allocation of the nation’s annual budget in
funding education as a strategy to achieving free and
compulsory education for all Nigerian children.
• Evolve appropriate strategies for raising funds through
involvement of individuals, communities, Parents Teachers
Association (P.T.A), private sectors, NGO’s, international
agencies to support families of poor children to have unhindered
access to education.
• Eradicate corruption and administrative bottle necks in
handling funds, equipment and supplies. All stakeholders must
be accountable for education.
Poverty
• Poverty has denied so many children in benefiting from
the free and compulsory education programme of the
government. Therefore, government should create more
programmes that have bearing on poverty alleviation to
improve standard of living of the Nigerian populace.
 EQUITY AND QUALITY OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIA 37

• The current school feeding programme embarked upon

by the Federal Government is a step in the right direction in
subsidizing education and widening access to education in
Nigeria.
• When every stakeholder is actively, effectively involved and
positively held accountable for education, then, access, equity
and quality of education will be achieved.
• When Nigerians stop politicizing education, better
educational plans and implementation strategies will be put in
place by professionals in the field of education.
• Finally, Nigeria has hope for its elementary education when
children irrespective of age, gender, location, and socio-
economic status have access to quality education.

Teaching and learning environment

• Provide academically effective, inclusive, gender-
responsive, healthy and protective environment for all children,
and encourage the participation of the learners themselves, their
families and their communities and overcome future learning
deficiencies among youth and adults.
• Create a flexible and sustainable learning environment. The
schools physical setting must be conducive to the continuous
and changing needs of the learning community. Classrooms,
labs, and other learning spaces must provide the necessary
elements that allow for instruction and learning. Furthermore,
they must be adaptable to different teaching and learning
activities.
• A truly effective learning environment is one that adapts to
the ever-evolving needs of community members. Such an
environment must focus on student-centered instructional
models that encourage students to realize their full potential.
• Gender inequality is often linked to the issue of education.
Eradicating discrimination against females taking part in
schooling is believed to be a valid tool for empowering 50% of
the planet’s population. Furthermore, guaranteeing that all
children obtain proper education will aid in defeating global
inequality.
38 JOURNAL OF ARTS AND EDUCATION, VOLUME 8 NUMBER 1 2020

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