TOPIC EIGHT: FACILITATION METHODS

This approach to teaching has already been introduced in the previous chapter. It consists
of two main branches:

a) Guided inquiry
b) Unguided inquiry.

Lang et al (1995) distinguishes the terms by noting that guided is where the teacher
moves students gradually from direct and indirect teaching towards a discovery; while
unguided is an open-ended teaching strategy that targets raising both students’ interests
in learning and in the degree of personal responsibility they take the learning process. A
method like questioning fall under guided.

Other methods which are interactive and experimental fall under unguided. Interactive
methods encourage discussion and sharing of ideas, responsibilities and other sources
among learners. Experiential facilitates the acquisition of knowledge through experience
and reflection.

Methods under Heuristic (inquiry) Strategy

Guided Inquiry Unguided Inquiry

Interactive Methods
Questioning - Guided discussions, open
discussions, buzz groups, small
groups, debtes, brainstorming,
panels, forums, e.t.c
- Experiential methods
Role playing, simulations, dramatizations,
field trips. Filed observations,
experiments, case studies, projects, pure
inquiry.

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 a) Questioning

This is the core of teaching “the teacher who never asks questions never teaches” (
Kochher, 1992). They are vital tools for teaching and learning (Parrot, 1982).
Groenewegen (1993) defines this method as a carefully designed string of questions
which lead the learner to arrive at answer. It is seen as a bridge between the expository
and heuristic approaches.

Purpose of Questioning

According to Pollard (1997) asking questions provides immediate feedback on how

participants are thinking and on what they know and it accounts for a high proportion of
teacher talk.

Dewey (1916) contends teacher’s questions should motivate learning, observation and
experimentation. Apart from these functions, questions have the following purposes.

i. Stimulation of interests, imaginations, initiative and creativity among learners

ii. Assertion of control and establishing of a rapport with learners in order to keep
them alert and attentive during the lesson.
iii. Reviewing the previous lesson on work covered to expose difficulties with learners
may be facing so that they are addressed. This can be done by using low level
cognitive questions to recall information encourage analysis
iv. Preparing the learner for new content by assessing their knowledge level on a
given topic. This is done by diagnosing learners and finding out their entry
behaviors and level of attainment.
v. Developing the ability to think, encouraging self –expression, developing
appreciation of ideas among the learner. They are encouraged to verbalize their
knowledge and thoughts and to learn from each other. This can be done by open
questions where learners will be required to explore information and ideas, and to
synthesize the information.
vi. Evaluating the learners level of understanding by encouraging the transfers of
ideas and application of knowledge and an on-the spot solution to problems.
vii. Encouraging a problem solving approach to thinking and learning.

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Types of Questions

i. Lower order and higher order questions. Lower order questions involve either
restraining facts or information memorized earlier in their raw state or
comprehending the information and applying it to new situations. They can be
cognitive memory questions which are normally narrow and factual seeking recall
or facts, definition of terms or descriptive statements or recall of correction
answers. The answer may consist of single word or phrase on descriptive
statements.
ii. Higher order questions are broad, more complicated calling for inter-relationships
and value judgments. They are classified as divergent and evaluative questions.
Divergent questions are wider and open without correct answers.

The higher order questions therefore require abstract thinking. It teaches learners to
generalize, to relate facts in meaningful patterns, to compare and contrast concepts of
principles to make inferences to use ideas and conclude. Apart from belonging to lower
and higher order categories. Questions can also be classified as psycho-social and
pedagogic. The former refers to those questions which center on relationship between a
teacher and learners while the latter relates to more specific education concerns such as
skills attitudes and concepts. Banners at el (1969) give yet another classification:

 Factual questioning
 Reasoning questions
 Open none resources questions
 Social questions

Proper Questioning Techniques

For one to apply questioning techniques adequately, the following should be observed:

i. Clarity of expression; use simple language to the level of the learners which will
produce the right response
ii. Question on what is within the experience, ability and background of the learners
iii. Have an answer in mind

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 iv. The questions should be directed to the whole class leading to the involvement of
as many students as possible
v. Sequence questions so that they chart a logical sequence reflecting the
development of the lesson
vi. Distribute question even among students
vii. Use prompting questioning when there is no response or the response is weak
viii. Pick on individuals to respond to the question, use their names
ix. Use probing technique to get better response through support questions,
clarification, rephrasing, use of examples etc.
x. Pause after asking question for digestion, organization and response from learners
xi. Give credit for effort made by using reinforcements techniques
xii. Accept correct answers and comment on the wrong ones so that the learners have
no doubt as to the correct response
xiii. Avoid chorus answers and rhetoric questions

Qualities of Good Questions

 Meaningful and relevant

 Definite and direct
 Clear and coherent
 Simple but challenging enough and thought provoking
 Suitable at the age
 Understandable and answerable
 Concise and to the point
 Interesting and within the experience of the learner

b) Discussion and Group Techniques

Discussion is a learning activity where a teacher and a learner talk together in order to
share the opinions, views or information about a topic or problem. It makes an absolutely
fundamental contribution to learning.

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A genuine class discussion must start with some attempt to elicit opinions and knowledge
from the pupils to treat them seriously and to explore their consequences (Pollard, 1997)

There two approaches to discussion “expository-oriented” and “inquiry-oriented”

discussion. In expository the teacher defines the objectives of the lesson, explains
learning activities, and allows for the discussion. invite questions before concluding the
activity.

In inquiry discussions the teacher may not state the objectives, instead s/he arranges for
the discussion to take place and the whole activity is open –ended. The teacher serves
as a leader and students carry out the discussion and arrive at a conclusion. Learning is
seen as the product of creative inquiry and active student participation. Inquiry-oriented
discussion, class session is characterized by:

 The probing exploration of ideas, concepts and issues

 Building upon students’ responses in a developmental flow;
 Interaction among all participants
 Questioning, sharing, differing, conjecturing on the part of all
 Student participation in decision making
 Hypothesizing and problem solving
 Shifting leadership among participants.

Examples of participatory activities which fall under discussion are whole class discussion
panel’s debates etc.

In these activities, there are techniques which provide opportunities for students to
present their ideas. Opinions and information and for the expression of differing
viewpoints. They include the following

1. Round table: this is a quite informal group, usually five or fewer participants who
sit around a table and converse among themselves and the audience. Normally,
there is active learning and responding. It is also characterized by effective
exchange of ideas, opinions and viewpoints

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 2. Panel: it is fairly informal setting in which four to six participants with a chairman
discuss a topic among themselves, and there is a give and take with the class. It
allows for free flow and exposition of ideas; it is wide open and spontaneous in
exchange of views. Each participant makes an opening statement, but there are
no speeches. The class is given room to make comments freely, giving their views.
3. Forum; a type panel approach in which a panel gives and talks with the audience.
4. Symposium: this is a more formal setting in which participants present speeches
representing different positions and open up for questions from the floor. It requires
thoughtful preparation and is in useful in a science class where research findings
can be discussed or topics of controversy.
5. Debate: a very formal approach consisting of set speeches by participants of two
opposing teams and a rebuttal by each participant. Ii calls for careful planning for
it to be productive.

In these presentations, students are needed to be taught how to: gather information; take
major points; organize materials; present a position succinctly, engage in dialogue; and
debate with one another

Suggestions on how to organize presentation type except for debate

1. To guide the pupils in selecting appropriate topic

2. Select the participants
3. Guide them on how to prepare for presentation by: selecting a chairman for them,
supervising the group members in the gathering and organizing material, briefing
them on the procedure and roles

The role of the chairperson for instance includes:

 Introduction of the topic, preparation of the audience and explanations of the

procedures:
 Introduction of the members
 Ascertaining that the members do not take too long
 Soliciting questions from the audience
 Accepting question and soliciting for more
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  Summing up when necessary
 Redirecting the flow of discussion when necessary
 Closing the discussion
4. Conduct the presentation: in order to involve the class in activities during the
presentation ensure the class is taking notes, the learners summarize the major
points of argument and evaluate the arguments and logic of the presentation.
5. Follow up the presentation with a class discussion
6. Follow up and tie up loose ends

How to organize a Debate

a) Select a question or a topic to be discussed

b) Allow students to form two teams, one for the topic and another arguing against it
c) Select a chairman and a time keeper
d) Choose first speaker one for and another against
e) Chose second speakers one for and another against
f) The speaker should be given 5-7 minutes each
g) Allow the first rebuttal for and second rebuttal against
h) Give chance for second rebuttal and second rebuttal against
i) Allow time for a general discussion, this is when the floor is open for the rest of the
class
j) Give concluding remarks

Small groups (syndicate, buzz and pair groups)

This involves forming groups from the whole class. The groups should consist of between
3-5 members for syndicate groups and learners for quick reference as pair groups. These
groups could be generated in one of the following ways:

1. Random grouping: this is where the students are grouped without any order. The
teacher picks them to form a group. The aim of such is to get students acquainted
and to encourage cooperation with other class members

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 2. Friendship grouping: the teacher deals with a clique as a group. Students from the
same neighborhood or social class are put together forming a homogeneous
group.
3. Interest grouping: students volunteer for various groups on the basis of interests
in the activity going on in that group or on topics under discussion, e.g. in a project
some might volunteer to paint, draw or write up the whole project
4. Achievement level grouping: students are grouped by their teacher according to
their ability. For instance, one group consists of bright another average and the
other weak students.
5. Differential ability grouping: the teacher intentionally places students with different
leadership and academic abilities in one group so that they can form a more
functional group.
6. Gender inclined: students are grouped according to their gender. The idea is to
promote competition between boys and girls.

Normally these groups meet to share opinions, viewpoints, reactions, etc. they are
important because:

1. They provide an opportunity for all the participants to interact in a way that is not
possible in a class situation. This makes learning more meaningful.
2. They promote self –discipline and reduce classroom management problems
3. Learners learn the skills of listening as well as talking as they listen and exchange
ideas
4. They also get opportunities to practice other manipulative skills through resources,
and observation.
5. It can be used to let off steam when students seem restless and bored
6. The learners grow in confidence as they discuss, argue, and exchange ideas with
each other
7. There is emergence of leadership qualities through sharing of responsibilities
8. They develop student’s higher level cognitive, interactive, and communication
skills and increase their accountability and independence.

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Organization of Group Work

It is important for group work to be organized properly. This organizational process can
be considered at three levels: before, during and after the group work.

Before group work, the teacher should,

 They are required resources for discussion

 The work to be discussed is written on the chalkboard or on pieces of paper. It
must be clear to the learners if the discussion had to be productive.
 Groups are formed using one of the techniques of grouping already discussed.
 Learners moves in group and identify a chairperson/secretary
 S/he gives specific time for discussion 7-10 minutes.

During group work, it should be ensured that: learners discuss with chairperson leading
the discussion and secretary noting down the points. The teacher goes around checking
and assisting where possible.

After the group work, the teacher should open up a discussion, pooling all points from the
secretaries, restricting, rephrasing and using correct terminologies and writing the points
on the chalkboard. In additional to this, the teacher also allows time for questions,
clarifications, comments and additions and ask learners to copy the points down; gives
including remarks and in class follow-up activities if necessary.

These groups could also be utilized in a wider project both in the social sciences and the
sciences. In groups of 3-5, students could work on a project in some of these areas in
science:

1. fish raising
2. studying and caring for flowers
3. studying plants like maize, beans

Under each of the above, they could study various aspects of growth and development,
observe and make regular progress report to the entire class. Different groups could be
engaged in different projects

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Topics on project

(i) Mode and means of communication and transport. They could study the
development of each means from ancient time to- date
(ii) Reporting on important historical events taking place in the world from the
newspapers and their impact in the society.

When small group activities take longer period they fall under project work.

c) Project Method

This method aims at developing the child into decent worthwhile citizens by actively
involving one into the learning process and freeing the individual from the traditional
school environment that that is usually marked with passivity method has been defined
as:

(i) any unit of activity, individual or group, involving the investigations and solution
of problems, that is planned and carried to conclusions by a student or students
under the guidance of teacher
(ii) an educational assignments necessitating personal initiative on the part of the
learner
(iii) a piece of work that needs skills, effort and careful planning especially over a
period of time

Types of Projects

1. Producer type: the learners are expected to construct real thing, models,
2. Consumer type: the learners are expected to make use of already proceed
materials e.g. watching a film, reading or listening to a stage about great
personality, studying speeches of great personality. Studying speeches of great
personality and writing on the achievement and characteristics of the persons like
Kwame Nkrumah, Nelson Mandela, and Jomo Kenyatta.
3. After consuming the produced materials, the learners can be engaged in a project
like writing and acting out a story.

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4. Problem-solving project: the learners are exposed to a problem solve in sciences,
humanities or languages. The solution to the problem could be book- based or field
i.e the learner could solve the problem by reading books within the school or going
out in the field to gather information towards the solution of the problem.

Criteria for a Good Project

1. Relevancy: it should be relevant to the instructional objective and the topic under
the study
2. Usefulness: it should result in a worthwhile end product fulfilling a long standing
need.
3. Economical: it should be reasonable in so far as time, effort, cost an availability
of sources are concerned
4. Suitable and challenging: should be challenging enough and suitable to the
mental age and ability of the learners, not too difficult nor too simple. If difficult, the
learners will be discouraged; if too easy, they will lose interest or not see the
seriousness of the activity.
5. Interesting in appealing: this is possible if the projects are chosen depending on
the interests of the learners
6. Richness: it should promote interdisciplinary approach to learning where
knowledge is viewed as a whole
7. Reality: they should be based on the real life situation. The learning experiences
in a project must be capable of being applied in life.

Preparation for a Project

1. The teacher students should identify a project to work on.

2. The teacher should discuss the project with the students, so that they understand
what it is
3. The learners should decide democratically and plan on what they should work on
within the project

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 4. The learners should cooperate to execute the plan with the teacher’s guidance.
Some of the activities should include; observing, drawing, painting, modelling,
interviewing, reading and writing.
5. The teacher and the learners should evaluate the project. Constructive criticism
should be made on the completed project so that an improvement is made on it.
6. The teacher should record the project in a book for future reference. This record
will include: how the problem was identified, duties assigned, problems
experienced and experience gained by the learners.

Teacher’s role in a project

In a project work the teacher

1. Helps the learners to identify suitable projects

2. Guides, supervises, advices the learners as they work on the project
3. Monitors the progress of the learners
4. Makes an evaluation guide for evaluating the project
5. Evaluates the project and
6. Records and keeps safely the record for future use by other groups

Evaluation guide for a project

In evaluating or assessing the completed project, the teacher should look for the following

1. Relevancy of the completed work to the topic under study

2. Precision of the finished work. How accurate is the information contained in the
project.
3. Worthiness of the project in relation to the time taken
4. Richness of the project. Does it promote the interdisciplinary approach to learning,
i.e how many subjects are integrated in the subject area
5. Appropriateness of the product to the level of the learners. Is it within or below their
ability level|?
6. Clarity of the message portrayed in the project
7. Personal initiative and creativity in the project

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 8. Appropriateness of colours used.
9. Suitability and durability of the material used in the project
10. Neatness of the finished work

Advantage of Project Method

This method has the following benefits

 Preparing the child for life outside school by acquainting one with real problems
of life
 Promoting a sense of responsibility and cooperation among the learners as
they work together to achieve a common goal
 Treating knowledge as a whole and correlating it avoiding compartmentalizing
it into subjects
 Imparting training to students to inculcate in them independence, tolerance,
patience, open mindedness and resourcefulness. These virtues are essential
for god citizenship
 Training for democratic way of life which is exercised through choice of areas
of interest in the project
 Upholding the dignity of labour because students learn to work with their own
hands
 Developing important skills in learners, such as observation, interviewing
critical thinking and decision making
 Utilizing the students’ potential to the full because they are encouraged to use
and develop their own talents
 Providing flexibility in learning as the learners learn at their own initiative and
pace

Disadvantages of Project Method

 It upsets the routine work of the school. This is especially the case with fieldwork
 It is not possible to apply all the subjects in a single project

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  Sometimes teachers end up emphasizing trivial points when they are trying to
show inter relatedness of topics or subjects
 Learners do not always make the best choices. As such the choices they make do
not reflect their interest and ability
 Learners get difficulties in getting relevant books for book based projects
 Sometimes learners may not comprehend what they are doing. This is especially
the case with book projects where students may just copy notes without
understanding
 The method is very demanding on the part of the teacher for it needs efficiency
and resourcefulness. This scat-res off many teachers from trying it out
 Grades given to learners do not always reflect the actual ability or performance of
each individual student
 Project method is expensive and time- consuming especially the field based one
 If not well planned, learners may lose sight or vision of the project and utilize that
time to enjoy themselves or engage in other unproductive activities.

d) Field Trip and Surveys

These are visits or trips the learners make to the venues of learning.

They are important because;

i. They make instruction real and vivid because students go out in the field to see
and do it by themselves. They are able to link instructions in real life
ii. They arouse curiosity among learners, thus increasing their motivation to learn
iii. They break class monotony where they have to sit in class day after day
iv. Learners develop the skills of analyzing and interpreting data and
v. They extend the classroom into the countryside by participating in activities or
problems of the community

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Possible areas for field trips

The following are some areas where students can be taken for study

 A factory (tea, coffee, e.t.c)

 A theatre to see production of a specific play. Eg. The Burdens
 A swamp or a river near the school to gather specimen and study the river course
 Museum to see historical artifacts works of great art
 Historical sites e.g. Fort Jesus, Gedi ruins, Portuguese pillar,
 Post office to see the activities conducted there e.g. sending of money orders,
telegrams

Preparation for a Field Trip

Preparation will differ depending on the distance between the school and the place. But
in cases where the place is far, the following should be followed to the letter.

The teacher identifies relevant place to be visited

a) Discussing the intended trip with the head of the school for approval
b) Planning objectives of the trip: what is to be achieved by the trip
c) Informing the students about the intended trip
d) Preparing and sending questionnaires in advance to the people who will be in
charge on the students during the trip
e) Contacting relevant people agents to seek permission
f) Agreeing on date, time number of students, teachers and activities the learners will
be involved
g) Informing the parents about the visit through a written note
h) Enlisting support and assistance of other members of staff and parents
i) Making arrangements with school authorities for students left behind or duties left
attended.
j) Making route plan
k) Reviewing field trip guide for students
l) Providing students with necessary materials

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 m) Arranging for safety devices by the students
n) Establishing rules of contact, behavior standards and form of dress
o) Giving procedure to be followed when one gets lost or is left behind.
p) Taking roll call before the start of the trip

Just like the teacher, the learners must prepare the visit. Their preparation should be
including the following.

(i) Understanding the objectives of the visits in advance

(ii) Being clear on what to look for during the trip
(iii) Preparing questions in advance with the help of the teacher
(iv) Dividing themselves into groups under a group leader depending on their area
of the interest with the guidance of the teacher
(v) Collection of the apparatus and other materials needed
(vi) Taking responsibilities e.g.
 Writing down details of the visit
 Listing areas of interest
 Taking photographs
 Tape recording
 Interviewing resource people
 Being in charge of food, drinks, and:
 Taking care of first aid box and cases.

During the visit or trip both the teacher and the learners have these responsibilities:

1. The teacher should ensure that there is proper conduct in the bus during the trip,
e.g. remaining on the seat, not sticking arms and heads out of the window.
2. In cases of stop on the way, the teacher has to take roll call to ensure that nobody
is left behind
3. On arrival, the teacher should reinstruct the learners on what should be done.
4. The teacher has to ensure that students work together in groups
5. The students should carry out specific tasks assigned to them

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 6. The teacher should supervise the learners in various activities they are involved
in.
7. The teacher should observe time and ensure that the students go back to class on
time.
8. If the trip calls for spending the night out away from the school, the teacher should
ensure that the students are safe and comfortable.

Follow-up after the visit

For the teacher to assess the success and benefits of the trip, one should,

1. Take about one or two lessons after the visit to consolidate the findings.
2. Give time to group leaders to present their results
3. Write major points on the chalkboard for the benefits of the whole classes
4. Mark and file written reports in a class file for future reference.
5. Give students an assignments based on the visit, e.g. project
6. Correct any errors made by the guides or agents during the visit
7. Write a brief evaluation of the trip for the future reference.

e) Pure Inquiry/ Discovery Method

This is a method which has an element of the problem solving or discovery learning and
is on the extreme of teaching continuum. It stresses on the experiences of the learner
either inside or outside the classroom. It is applied to all subjects in the curriculum not
only sciences. It might involve carrying out an experiment in the laboratory, solving a
mathematics problem, thinking through a historical or geographical problem. This method
is useful because:

1. It draws conclusions: form concepts and generalization from some form of

induction, deduction, observation or application of principals. The learners also
learn to apply this to new situations.
2. It offers good motivating activity.

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 3. Learners get an opportunity to learn and introduce the intellectual skills and learn
to think rationally.
4. Learners are able to see relationship and the disciplinary structure.
5. Learners understand the intellectual processes
6. Students learn that learning becomes meaningful, through and more useful when
students seek out and discover knowledge.

The method has the following short comes:

1. Costly in time and effort.

2. When pupils reach erroneous conclusion, re-teaching may be more difficult
3. Contradiction in what has been discovered and what the teacher has in mind

Procedure for conducting discovery is scientific in nature. It involves:

1. Selecting the generalization; this is where thinking originates and the

generalization is made in a state of doubt, hesitation and mental difficulty
2. Setting up a problem situation: the problem is stated and expanded in order to
clarify it. The learners discuss the problem amongst them and clarify it.
3. Setting up experiences that will bring out essential elements such as problems
solving, questions, demonstration, etc. this leads to a statement of a hypothesis
and implies reflection of the problem situation.
4. Putting up experiences that will bring out constructing elements. This is when the
results of the inquiry come out which may be tentative, subject of new and different
results in the light of new knowledge.

Basic steps in using the Inquiry Model.

1. Set up the problem situation

2. Provide experiences to bring out essential elements

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 3. Set up experiences to bring out contrasting elements

4. Learners forms concept or generalization

5. Learners applies concept or generalization

Learner’s role in inquiry teaching

According to Callahan and clerk (1990), the student’s duties in inquiry method include the
following:

1. Guiding learning by raising problems, issues, questions, designed to cat the pupil’s
interest.
2. Starting the learners thinking
3. Encouraging them to investigate by.
4. Helping them to map out their procedure
5. Ordering their thinking
6. Leading some to logical conclusions
7. Testing and applying their conclusions

During this time teacher should:

1. Supporting and accepting the learners with their views

2. Accentuating the positive by distinguishing good reasons from bad ones
3. Encouraging the exchange of ideas
4. Warning and rescuing pupils when they seem to lose their way
5. Encouraging pupils to make informed guessed
6. Fostering free debates and open discussion and urging pupils to try and think
things out without threats of failure

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In addition to stimulating independent resourceful thinking one should:

1. Check the learner’s data gathering technique

2. Ask-thought provoking questions
3. Ask for interpretation
4. Ask students implication of their data and information
5. As students to check their thinking and logic
6. Identify situations which will call for the learner’s reassessment of thinking and
positons.

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