CHAPTER 1 – ETHICS: THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN  In this case, your decision is not anymore based on

ETHICS AND MORALITY a subjective perspective of what morality is, more

Ethics importantly, you need to employ ethical principles by
 Is derived from the greek word ethos which means which your basis is at the present time the modern
“Characteristic way of acting” society and from there you would consider that it
 Its latin equivalent, which is also taken from the word should be at the level of person, society, or
morality, is mos, mores, meaning, tradition or custom interaction with the environment or pother shared
 Ethos includes cultural mannerism, religion, politics, resources
law, social aspiration of a group of people
Understanding your moral compass in order to develop
Ethics and Morals are different in many sense and quite better judgement is the aim for studying ethics.
similar.
Students cannot be tabularasa. We all have our biases
Ethics already. We have developed a set of moral standards
 Pertains to the rules of conduct recognized in already.
respect to a particular class of human actions or a
particular group or culture All profession have ethical standard
 Ethics ensure a generally agreed standard of work-
Morals related behavior and it empowers professionals to
 Refer to the principles or habits with respect to right cultivate moral values through their work so ethics
or wrong conduct gives a sense of justification in ones judgement and
 Also prescribe the dos and donts. Morality is an help ensure that decision at work are not made
personal compass of right and wrong based on purely subjective factors.
Ethics
 External Humans are social beings. The reason why each human
 We uphold ethic because society says it is the right agreed to live with each other is because of co-existence.
thing to do. Which is needed to ensure balance and harmony. However
this co existence will only be possible if there is a system that
Morals guides and helps them work together as one community
 Internal and rooted from the individual  Rules
 We believe in something being right and wrong  Usually found in law.

Origin Rule - a testament that tells you what is and is not allowed in
a particular situation.
Ethics
 Ethos character CHAPTER 2: THE NATURE OF ETHICS
 Governed by professional and legal guidelines within
“Character and Custom”
a particular time and place
- While it may be said that Ethics deals with human
conduct, all that is outside human conducts, like
Morals
animal behavior rand non-moral activities cannot be
 Mos (customs)
part of Ethics.
 Transcends cultural norms and are personal
Amoral
What is ethics? - Having nomoral sense or being indifferent to right
and wrong.
Ethics and morals are quite different but their differences are - ex. Babies since they don’t have moral sense yet.
rooted in their origin implication
Non Moral
If we talk about ethics, we talk about morality thus ethics is - This means that they are out of the realm of morality.
defined as the science of the morality of human acts. - Ex. Inanimate objects such toys, books, bicycle and
 It embodies the moral understanding of every human guns. They can neither be moral nor immoral.
person based on their human actions as to the
standard of right and wrong that an individual picks Ethics deals with the study of moral behavior or conduct of
up from society. It is a science because it is a humans as viewed from the ultimate principles insofar as
systematic body of knowledge, a knowledge of these principles are known by human reason.
morality and principles of ethical behavior. Its object
is human acts because human actions are those Ethics is the science of human acts with reference to right
performed by humans, knowingly and freely. and wrong.
 They are deliberate or intentional actions. Ethics is the study of the rectitude of human conduct.
 Morality is also is the quality of human acts which Ethics is the scientific inquiry into the principles of morality.
they are constituted as good, bad, or indifferent. Ethics is the practical science of the morality of the human
actions.
The marketing situation Ethics likewise guides the will in its search for what is good.
 Your moral compass will be tested
The Material and the Formal Object of Ethics divine authority. Another thing, the practice of
- The material object of Ethics consists of human acts. morality need not be motivated by religion
- Ex. Acts in which his superior faculties of both considerations.
intellect and will are used.
- The formal object of Ethics is the moral rectitude of The Division of Ethics
humans’ acts in relation to humans’ natural end.
General Ethics
Ethics draws upon the following sources: - General Ethics presents truths about human
- Human reason (primary source) acts,and from these truths deduce the general
- Experience (contemporary and historical) principles of morality.
- Personal experience Special Ethics
- Experience of others - Is applied Ethics
- It is divided into:
Morality vs. Etiquette, Law and Religion [Link] Ethics
As regards to God
Etiquette As regards to self
- Refers to any special code of behavior or courtesy. As regards to fellowmen
- For example, it is usually considered bad etiquette to B. Social Ethics
eat with one’s fingers while attending a formal dinner In the family
or when you’re in a fine dining restaurant, or to use In the state
obscene language in public. In the world (International Ethics)

Morality Approaches to the Study of Morality

- Morality, on the other hand, is about what’s right and
wrong on a deeper level. It’s about fairness, justice, The Scientific approach
and human dignity. It’s what makes us feel guilty - This is most often used in the social sciences, which
when we lie or hurt someone, even if no one is emphasizes observation of human behavior and
watching. conduct, and the positing conclusions based on
- Theso-called rules of etiquette that we learned at those observations.
home and school are prescriptions for socially The Philosophical Approach
acceptable behavior. If you violate the rules, then - 1. Normative or prescriptive ethics
you are rightly considered ill-mannered or Having to do with norms and prescriptions, that is,
uncivilized, but not necessarily immoral. the statements are prescribing how human beings
Four Kinds of Law should behave, not merely describing how they do in
Statutes fact behave.
- These are laws enacted by legislative bodies. The - [Link] or analytic ethics
law that prohibits touching people without their It does not prescribe anything, nor do they deal
consent is a statute. directly with normative systems. Instead, they go
Regulations beyond, by concentrating on reasoning, logical
- Limited in their knowledge, legislatures often setup structures and language rather than on content.
boards and agencies, whose functions include
issuing detailed regulations of certain kinds of Types of Norms
conduct. Technical Norm
Common Law - This refers mainly to man’s needs which come from
- Courts frequently wrote opinions explaining the his bodily space time limitations. This norm has to do
bases of their decisions in specific case, including with survival, health and well-being.
the legal principles they deemed appropriate. Each
of these opinions became a precedent for later Societal Norm
decisions in similar cases. - This particular type of norm has something to do with
Constitutional Law the need for group cohesion and for strengthening
- Constitutional law defines the principles of the bonds that keep the community together.
separation of powers as well as system of check and
balances. And the relationship of these three entities Aesthetic Norm
within a state. - This refers to typical perceptual forms regarding
color, shape, sound, emotion, taste, and scent which
Is the law, whatever its source, always a reliable standard for are considered by the community as ‘ennobling,’ or
determining moral behavior? cathartic, and beautiful.
- It is, if and only if; What is legal is always moral, and
What is not prohibited by laws is always moral. Ethical or Moral Norm
- This refers to some ideal vision of a human person,
Religion an ideal stage or perfection of his/her being, which
- Ethics solely as philosophical disciplined, relies on serves as the ultimate goal and norm.
human reason, logic and human experience while
religion on the other hand, relies primarily and mainly
on supernatural reason, that is divine revelation or
CHAPTER 3 - THE BASIC CONCEPTS OF ETHICS Ethics is presumed as moral rules on how a person should
act. Moral principles like these guide the practice of various
Moral Standards professions.
- Moral standards involve the rules people have about - But is that all there is to ethics?
the kinds of actions they believe are morally right - Is ethics just about following rules of do’s and
and wrong, as well as the values they place on the dont’s?
kinds of objects they believe are morally good and
morally bad. Dilemma
- What is right and wrong
- Example: when it comes to business ethics. When a - is defined as “a situation in which you have to make
company should adhere to standards to insure fair a difficult choice.
practices without exploiting like cheap labor. - A difficult choice
- Students resisting the temptation to cheat. - Example: Out of cash and it’s not due to send
allowance, you need to make a choice that you need
Non moral standards to borrow money from your friends

- Non-moral standards refer to rules that are unrelated Moral dilemma

to moral or ethical considerations. Either these
standards are not necessarily linked to morality or by - is a situation in which, whatever choice is made, the
nature lack ethical sense. agent commits a moral wrong.
- House rules - There are two or more actions that you can possibly
- Game rules do
- There is a moral reason for doing such action
Moral experience - You cannot do all the possible actions presented to
you. You only need to choose one.
- A moral experience is any encounter wherein a
person understands that the values he/she believes Personal Moral Dilemma
to be important are either realized or thwarted.
- This concept of moral experience, however, asserts - This happens individually, like being confronted with
that the encounter is not limited to situations fraught a situation wherein you either need to choose
with ethical questions, but that moral experience between a friend who is at fault or a stranger who is
happens even in mundane everyday settings a victim of your friend, while you know the truth
wherein you take action based on your moral about the matter.
standards. - A person whose choice will adversely affect the very
- The values na iyang gi tuohan kay important or important people in your life then that is personal
realized. moral dilemma
- We face choices, we Organizational Moral Dilemma
Six characteristics of moral standards - A dilemma that happened when you are in
organizations, especially in the field of business.
1. moral standards involve behaviors that seriously - Example: in hospitals when the machine tells you a
affect people’s well-being. negative result then you tell it is positive just to save
2. moral standards take a more important consideration the company.
than other standards including self-interest.
- Example: a company must choose between patas an
3. moral standards do not depend on any external
ang profits pero iless ang salary
authority but in how the person perceives the
reasonableness of the action. Structural moral dilemma
4. moral standards are believed to be universal.
5. Moral standards are based on objectivity – there - A dilemma where it involves the whole society.
should be an objective standard - The bad effect of TRAIN law
6. Moral standards are associated with vocabulary that
depicts emotion or feelings – if there are things that Moral judgement
goes against your standards there is a feeling or - Moral judgments refer to judgments that have moral
emotion content; they are used to evaluate situations,
Advantage of owning moral standards than merely abiding courses of action, persons, behavior, etc.
moral standards - Some based their judgements on culture, on
emotion, on personal preference, on virtue, on the
- This obsession with rules somehow neglects the good result of the action, the action that is an end
more important aspect of being a person itself.
- The more important question “what should I do” but - Forms the foundation for decision making but
“what kind of person I should be.” pressure and fear can sometimes contradict the
judgement of a certain situation
Moral decision - The experience of morality is part of every person ’ s
life.
- It’s a choice made based on a person's ethics, - Thus, terms such as good, bad, right or wrong,
manners, character and what they believe is proper appropriate, ought, obligation, duty, and the like, are
behavior. Like when you are confronted with a moral commonly found in various forms in human
dilemma, you should make a moral decision such conversations.
that a solution will arrive in the situation.
- It involves choosing an action based on moral CHAPTER 4 – THE MORAL AGENT
judgement and some practical consideration
“who is the one acting morally?
Freedom
The role of culture in the shaping of the moral behavior of the
- Humans are the only capable entities who can be moral agent, the factors involving cultural relativism, the
ethical. Filipino culture, traits and values, the development of moral
- Only humans have a reason to understand a character and the stages of moral development.
situation and a freedom to choose whatever decision
humans thought the right to do. The Three Sources of Authority
- The human person in his or her decision making 1. Law
process is free to decide what to do and free to act - It is supposed that law is one ’ s guide to ethical
on his or her decisions. n to understand a situation behavior. The term positive law refers to the different
and a freedom to choose whatever decision humans rules and regulations that are posited or put forward
thought the right to do. by an authority figure that requires compliance. The
- Only human beings can be ethical because only law is enforced by way of a system of sanctions
humans have the capacity for free moral judgment administered through persons and institutions, which
- Some philosophers’ humans are only the one all help in compelling us to obey. Taking the law to
capable of being ethical be the basis of ethics has the benefit of providing us
- Humans can freely decide on a certain action with an objective standard that is obligatory and
- Only humans can have reason who can understand applicable to all.
the situation. - can one simply identify ethics with the law?
- Freedom can choose a decision. The prohibitive nature of law. ( The law cannot tell us
- What is freedom? what to pursue, only what to avoid)
Virtue
2. Religion
- The personal aspect of morality is about developing - It expresses a claim that many people of a religious
virtue so that thinking morally, performing moral acts, sensibility find appealing and immediately valid: the
and choosing to do what is good become a habit. idea that one is obliged to obey his/her God in all
- Habits developed through learning and practice. things. As a foundation for ethical values, this is
Once you have it it becomes your characteristics. referred to as the divine command theory
- Because a person is free, he is able to decide and - (There is an advance here over the law because
cultivate his or her moral values, through habit and religion is not simply prohibitive, but it also provides
practice ideals to pursue)
- Problem with Religion
Freedom On the practical level, because there are multiple
- Demands responsibility religions and each religion has each own way of
- Is a gift commanding its faithful, which leads to differing
ethical standards, there appears conflicts on the
- Is complementary to reason
case of different ethical standards of every religion.
- Is absolute
On the conceptual level, we will see a problem about
Moral Theories the connection between ethics and the Divine.

- A moral theory consists of a set of moral principles. 3. Culture

These principles specify the conditions under which - Our exposure to different societies and their culture
an action is morally right or wrong, or what makes a makes us aware that there are ways of thinking and
person or something good or bad. valuing that are different from our own, that there is
Moral Reasoning in fact a wide diversity of how different people
believe it is proper to act.
- The term “ moral reasoning ” or “ ethical reasoning ” - The sheer variety at work in the different ways of
refer to the reasoning process by which human valuation means there is no single universal
behaviors, institutions, or policies are judged in standard for such valuations, and that this hold true
accordance with or in violation of moral standards. as well in the realm of ethics

Moral Dimension of Human Existence

 - Therefore, what is ethically acceptable or Depending on one’s motive or intention, a
unacceptable is relative to, or that is to say, particular act or conduct can be modified in
dependent on one ’ s culture. This position is its moral worth.
referred to as cultural relativism
Four Principles
- An indifferent act can become
Cultural Relativism morally good or morally evil
- Cultural relativism seems to conform to what we depending upon the intention of the
experience. person doing the act.
- By taking one ’ s culture as the standard, we are - An objectively good act becomes
provided a basis for our valuations. morally evil due to a wrong or bad
- This teaches us to be tolerant of others from different motive.
cultures, as we realize that we are in no position to - An intrinsically (objectively) morally
judge whether the ethical thought or practice of good act can receive added
another culture is acceptable or unacceptable. goodness, if done with an equally
- Our own culture ’ s moral code is neither superior to noble intention or motive.
nor inferior to any other, but they would provide us - An intrinsically evil act can never
the standards that are appropriate and applicable to become morally good even if it is
us. done with a good motive or
intention.

3. The Circumstances
Elements of Human Acts and Determinants of Morality
Circumstances refer to the various
- Human acts (Actus Humani) refer to actions that conditions outside of the act.
proceed from insight into the nature and purpose of Circumstances are conditions that influence,
one’s doing and from consent of free will to a lesser or greater degree, the moral
quality of the human act.
Three Basic Elements of Human Acts

1. Human Act is Deliberate

- An action is deliberate when a person doing the act Four Types of Circumstances that Affect the Morality of the
has conscious knowledge upon performing the act; Act
who knows about the consequences of the act and 1) Mitigating circumstances
about what is right or wrong in reference to the act It diminish the degree of moral good or evil in an act.
2. Human act is performed in freedom. 2) Aggravating circumstances
- An action which is performed without hindrance and It increase the degree of moral good or evil in act
duress and has the element of free will is a human without adding a new and distinct species of moral
act good or evil.
3. Human act is done voluntarily. 3) Justifying circumstances
- It must be performed by an agent who decides It show adequate reason for some acts done.
willfully to perform the act 4) Specifying circumstances
Determinants of Morality It give a new and distinct species of moral good or
evil act.
- (refer to the sources that define the
goodness/rightness or badness/wrongness of
actions How culture shapes our moral behavior?
- done with knowledge, freedom and consent)
What is Culture?
1. The Act Itself or the Object of the Act
This is the substance of the moral act and - Culture is “that complex whole which includes
here regarded as the basic factor of morality. knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, custom, and any
Morality can be objective and intrinsic. other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a
This means that objectively, there are member of society
actions by themselves as good and bad, - (It is then a common and well-accepted belief that culture
right and wrong, moral and immoral. plays a very influential and essential role in the
development and formation of one ’ s moral character.)
2. The Motive or the Intention
The motive is the purpose or intention that Modifiers of Human Acts
for the sake of which something is done. It is
the reason behind our acting.
- These are factors and conditions that affect to a 1. Different societies have different moral codes.
considerable extent man’s inner disposition towards
certain actions 2. The moral code of a society determines what is right or
wrong. There is no objective standard considered better than
Ignorance - the absence of necessary knowledge which a others.
person on a given situation, who is performing a certain act,
ought to have 3. There are no universal moral truths.

Passion - a strong or powerful feeling or emotion. 4. The moral code of a particular society has no special
status. It is but one among many.
Fear - “the disturbance of the mind of a person who is
confronted by an impending danger or harm to himself or 5. It is arrogant for one culture to judge another culture.
loved ones There should be tolerance among culture.

Violence - any physical force exerted on a person by another

free agent for the purpose of compelling the said person to The Advantages and Dangers of Cultural Relativism
act against his will.
Advantage
Habit - “constant and easy way of doing things acquired by
the repetition of the same act. - It warns us from assuming that our preferences are the
absolute rational standard.
COGNITIVE AND ETHICAL RELATIVISM - It teaches us to keep an open mind and to be more
Cognitive relativism asserts the relativity of truth. amenable in discovering the truth.

- due to the close connections between the concept of Disadvantage

truth and concepts such as knowledge, rationality and - We cannot call out societal practices that promote harm.
justification. - We cannot justifiably criticize our own culture’s harmful
The Philosophers practices.
- The idea of social progress becomes doubtful.
Friedrich Nietzsche - This philosopher is famous in
introducing the so-called perspectivism. In this theory,
Nietzsche believes that there are no such as things in Arguments for Ethical Relativism
themselves but only on the perspective that we decide to see
on the things. a) The Cultural Differences Argument
One of the most often cited reasons to support
Immanuel Kant - He believes that one cannot know the thing Ethical Relativism is the actual existence of moral
in themselves but what can be known to the human mind is diversity among cultures. Throughout history many
the thing that appears to the senses. This lead Immanuel societies have held beliefs and practices about
Kant to ask the question, Is what we can know determined by morality that are strikingly different from our own.
a world that is independent of us or is it, in some sense, ‘up
to us’? b) The Argument from Respect
Richard Rortye - Language is used to represent the world Accordingly, if moral codes differ from culture and
and that truth registers a correspondence between what we there is no objective or culturally dependent basis by
say and how the world is. Knowledge is not an accurate which to judge the moral code of any culture, then
representation of ‘reality.’ the moral code of one’s particular culture has no
special status compared with the rest. This would
Ethical Relativism and Cultural Relativism mean that each of the culture has its own unique and
importance to every society. Thus, it is necessary
- Ethical Relativism - Ethical Relativism is a theory that that everyone should respect each other’s culture.
holds that there are no universally valid moral principles;
that all moral values are valid relative to culture or c) Psychological Argument
individual choice. This argument undermines confidence in the
- Cultural Relativism - Cultural relativism explains why one objectivity of ethics by making us aware of the non-
behavior or practice is completely acceptable by a rational ways in which moral ideas and beliefs are
particular group of people, while it is taboo in another. It formed and developed in the individual. Our values
refers to the idea that values, knowledge and behavior of are simply the result of our having been conditioned
people must be understood within its own cultural to behave in a certain way.
context, and not by the standards of other cultures.
d) Conformity Argument
As social beings by nature, it is but natural for people
Five Claims of Cultural Relativists as to why Right or Wrong to easily affiliate and conform to the accepted ethical
is only a matter of Cultural Standards standards of the particular group that they belong.
 This then provides the central validity or justification - They are cultural habits that define the Filipino attitude
of the morality of the group, whatever it may be. towards life in general and towards specific actions in
particular.
e) The Provability Argument - Values do not belong exclusively to Filipinos. But certain
The usual experience of people having a great universal values find different meaning and application
difficulty in knowing what is morally “right thing”to do within the experiential and historical circumstances of the
in a particular situation has led to a general attitude Filipino. What we call Filipino values are those who
of skepticism on the possibility of determining, much derive from our culture or way of life, from “our distinctive
worse establishing a universal and definite moral way of becoming human in this particular place and time.
standard. 1. pananalig sa Maykapal
2. pakikipag-kapwa,
3. pagpapahalaga sa pamilya,
Critical Evaluation of Ethical Relativism On Cultural Diversity 4. hiya,
5. utang na loob
- If people differ in the clothes they wear, the kind of food 6. dangal,
they eat and the language they speak, why cannot they 7. amor propio,
also differ in their moral beliefs? If the former is not 8. delicadeza, and palabra de
universal, why should morality be universal? honor.
1) On the Argument from Respect
Some people have come to accept Ethical Relativism Qualities of the Filipino Moral Identity
because they believe that people should not judge other The strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino character are
people from other cultures or societies on the basis of rooted in factors such as:
their own moral standards. Besides, they think that this is The home environment.
the attitude of mature and enlightened minds, the kind The social environment.
that can render respect and tolerance in the face of Culture and language.
something unfamiliar and even contradictory. History.
The Educational system.
2) On the Psychological Argument Religion.
As what we have discussed, the Psychological Argument The Economic Environment.
is undoubtedly very impressive. Hence, if it is proven to The Political Environment.
be logically sound, it will definitely add to the file of Mass media.
Leadership and role models.
arguments stacked in favor of Ethical Relativism.
Strengths of the Filipino Character
3) On the Argument from Conformity 1. Pakikipag-kapwa Tao.
Whatever a society believes to be right is right for that 2. Family Orientation.
particular society. What is considered as “good” is what 3. Joy and Humor.
the majority as the major constitution of a society, 4. Flexibility, Adaptability and Creativity.
approves or acknowledges as good. Thus, morality is 5. Hard work and Industry.
simply dependent of what the majority wants or decides. 6. Faith and Religiosity.
What is good and bad is reducible to a kind of social 7. Ability to Survive.
contract or a matter of group consensus. Weaknesses of the Filipino Character
1. Extreme personalism
4) On the Provability Argument 2. Extreme Family-centeredness
Its plausibility mainly hangs on how strict and rigid 3. Lack of Discipline
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative
we should take the whole question of “proof” in
5. Colonial Mentality
matters pertaining to morality. 6. Kanya-Kanya Syndrome
7. Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflection
Why there are Universal Values?
- The empirical basis of cultural relativism is that cultures
are dramatically different in its views of what is right or
wrong. However, when it comes to important moral
issues, there are three values that are universal.

The Filipino culture, traits, and values

Filipino (Cultural) Values

- Values are universal, shared by all people.

- What we call “Filipino ” values are those given emphasis
in the culture and tradition of the Filipinos.