Understanding Citizenship

Defining Citizenship
Citizen: A legal member of a particular State who owes allegiance to that State. Legally
recognized member of a sovereign political community, entitled to prerogatives and
responsibilities.
Citizenship: The means of determining legal membership in a State. Rules regulating the
legal/formal relations between the State and the individual regarding nationality acquisition
and loss. Varies in national language, expressing judicial relationships or social roles.

Citizenship as a Status of Right

Being a citizen grants a series of rights.
Hohfeldian incidents: liberty, claim, power, and immunity rights.

Liberty Right
Freedom to do something without interference, benefiting the right-holder without obligating
others.
Example: Right to movement.

Claim Rights
Entail responsibility upon another person or body. Rights enjoyed when others discharge their
obligations.
Example: Unemployment benefits.

Power Rights
The ability to change or cancel entitlements of oneself or others.
Example: Right to renounce citizenship.

Immunity Rights
Protection from controls, the opposite of power rights. Absence of power in another party to
alter the right-holder’s situation.
Example: Civil servants' protection from dismissal after a new government takes power.

Membership and Identity

Citizenship implies membership in a political community and integration with a shared
identity.
Increasingly used to signify standards of proper conduct, implying "good" citizens are genuine
 citizens.

Participation
Varying levels of engagement in society, from private affairs to active participation in politics.
Minimalist approach: Basic compliance with rules.
Maximalist approach: Active engagement in the State.
Ferguson: Rights realization requires democratic participation in decision-making.

Inclusion and Exclusion

Not all residents of a state are citizens.
Aliens have rights (life, movement, protection) and responsibilities.
Citizens have reserved political and economic rights and duties.
Example: Ethiopian citizens' right to land, vote, election, and passport.
Citizenship can extend to organizations ("corporate citizenship") and endemic animals.
Corporations have rights, duties, and corporate social responsibility (CSR).
'Citizen' can indicate membership beyond a State, like "global citizen."

Theorizing Citizenship
Citizenship is a cultural artifact, not an eternal essence.

Citizenship in Liberal Thought

Focuses on the individual as the primary political unit. Individuals should be free to decide
their own conception of the good life.
Locke: Natural law compels individuals to consider their own and others' interests, leading to
social cooperation.
The individual is morally prior to the community. The community's value is based on its
contribution to individual well-being.
Citizenship is a means accepted only conditionally, as long as it fosters the maximization of
individual preferences.
The State's role is to protect and create an environment for citizens to enjoy their rights.
Mill: Individual liberty and State action are often opposed.
Individuals choose their level of community participation without jeopardizing citizenship.
Three fundamental principles for a liberal government:
Equality: Treat similarly situated individuals the same.
Due process: Treat individuals fairly.
Mutual consent: Membership rests on a consensual relationship.
Bedrock principles of liberal theory of citizenship:
Individuals are free to form opinions, pursue projects, and transact business, except when
actions affect others.
Citizenship is not based on shared identity or culture; identification with others is a
product of legal status.
Critics of Liberal Theory of Citizenship:
Free-raiders problem: Those who benefit from a resource or service do not pay for it,
 leading to under-provision. Occurs when property rights are not clearly defined and
imposed.
Tragedy of the commons: Individuals acting in self-interest deplete shared resources.
Valorizes privatization, but individual preferences may be biased.
Liberal societies may be less egalitarian.
Power can become an instrument of the few.
Liberalism may increase economic inequalities.
Liberalism aims for a weak State, permeable to private interests.
The liberal State strives for normative neutrality, but history proves this impossible.

Citizenship in Communitarian Thought

Emphasizes the importance of society in articulating the good.
Citizens' identity cannot be understood outside their territory, culture, and traditions.
Rules and procedures are based on the shared common good.
Individuals are seen as products of social practices, not the other way around.
Interests of communities cannot be reduced to individual interests.
Privileging individual autonomy is destructive to communities.
A healthy community balances individual choice and communal way of life.
An individual's sense of identity is produced through relations with others in the community.
Defining features of communitarian perspective:
No individual is entirely self-created.
Society achieves its goals when individuals assimilate.
Assimilation creates a bond between the individual and the community.
Critics of Communitarian citizenship:
Hostile towards individual rights and autonomy, potentially authoritarian.
Communities may be dominated by power elites.

Citizenship in Republican Thought

Emphasizes both individual and group rights.
Incorporates individual self-interest within community belonging.
Citizenship is a common civic identity shaped by a common public culture.
Citizens should find unity in diversity.
Doesn't pressure individuals to surrender particular identities but encourages finding
common ground.
Advocates self-government but acknowledges the value of public life.
Individuals must overcome personal inclinations for the public good.
Essential elements: publicity and self-government.
Publicity: Open conduct of public affairs.
Self-government: Active participation in government.
Critics of republican citizenship:
Unrealistic in the age of globalization.
Threat to open, egalitarian, and pluralistic society.
Enforces homogeneity by excluding those defined as different.
Justifies the dominance of a particular group.
Involves a false ideal of impartiality.
Multicultural Citizenship
Citizenship should include cultural and group rights within a democratic framework.
Appropriate for diverse societies and economic trends.
Recognition of group difference implies seeing citizens as equal individuals and as members
of groups with specific needs.
Focuses on four principles:
Equality of citizenship rights as a starting point.
Recognizing formal equality does not guarantee equality of respect, resources,
opportunities, or welfare.
Establishing mechanisms for group representation and participation.
Differential treatment for people with different characteristics, needs, and wants.
Allows marginalized voices to be heard.
Critics worry that it encourages groups to turn inward and focuses on "difference," hindering
community and creating a "politics of grievance."

Modes/Ways of Acquiring and Losing Citizenship

Citizenship is guaranteed by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), Article 15.

Ways of Acquiring Citizenship

Citizenship by birth and citizenship through naturalization/law.

Citizenship from birth/of Origin

Acquired by being born in the territorial administration of a state or by having citizen parents.
Two principles:
Jus Soli (law/right of the soil): Citizenship by birth within a country's territory.
Jus Sanguinis (law/right of blood): Citizenship acquired through parents' citizenship.
Jus Soli exceptions: children of diplomats and refugees.

Citizenship by Naturalization/Law
Legal process for foreigners to become citizens.
Sub-principles:
Political case (secession, merger, subjugation): Territory changes result in new
citizenship.
Grant on application.
Marriage.
Legitimization/adoption.
Reintegration/restoration.

The Modes of Acquiring Ethiopian Citizenship

 Governed by the "Ethiopian Nationality Proclamation NO. 378/2003."
Acquisition by birth or naturalization.

Acquisition by Descent
Article 3: Ethiopian nationality by descent if both or either parent is Ethiopian.
Abandoned infants found in Ethiopia acquire Ethiopian nationality unless proven otherwise.
No Jus Soli in Ethiopia.

Grant on Application (registration)

Aliens can get Ethiopian citizenship through naturalization.
Reach the age of majority, 18 years.
Lived in Ethiopia for at least four years.
Sufficient and lawful source of income.
Able to communicate in any indigenous language.
Good character.
No criminal conviction.
Released from previous nationality.
Takes the oath of allegiance.

Cases of Marriage
Article 6: Alien married to an Ethiopian citizen can acquire Ethiopian citizenship.
Marriage must be true and valid.
Marriage must last at least two years.
Alien must live in Ethiopia for at least one year before application.
Alien must be of the age of majority, be of good moral character, and take the oath of
allegiance.

Cases of Adoption (Legitimating)

Article 7: A child adopted by an Ethiopian citizen can acquire Ethiopian citizenship.
Child has not attained the age of majority.
Lives in Ethiopia with adopting parent.
Released from previous nationality or is stateless.
If one adopting parent is a foreigner, that parent agrees to the child gaining Ethiopian
nationality.

Citizenship by Special Cases

Article 8: Alien who has made an outstanding contribution to Ethiopia can be granted
citizenship without meeting the Article 5 preconditions.

Re-Admission to Ethiopian Nationality

 Article 22: Persons who have lost Ethiopian citizenship may regain it.

Examining and Deciding upon an Application to acquire

Ethiopian Citizenship
Application submitted to the Security, Immigration and Refugee Affairs Authority.
Examined by the Nationality Affairs Committee (representatives from various ministries).
If approved, the applicant takes the oath of allegiance.

Dual Citizenship
Being a citizen of two nations.
Arises from clashes between Jus Soli, Jus Sanguinis, and naturalization.
Example: Baby born to French parents visiting the U.S. acquires both U.S. (Jus Soli) and
French (Jus Sanguinis) citizenship.
Ethiopia prohibits dual citizenship, Article 20(1) of the 2003 proclamation.

Ways of Loosing Citizenship

Citizenship can be lost through lapse or withdrawal of citizenship under certain conditions, or
when a citizen voluntarily renounces it.
Denationalization grounds:
Allegiance: lack of allegiance, active disloyalty (for example, treason).
Punishment: country may seek to deny such benefits to people it believes are unworthy of
enjoying them.
Public order.

Deprivation
Involuntary loss of citizenship by government decision.
Reasons: uncovering national secrets, non-compliance with citizenship duties, loss of
genuine link, naturalization in another country.
Article 17 of the 2003 Ethiopian nationality proclamation prohibits losing Ethiopian nationality
through deprivation.

Lapse/expiration
Loss of citizenship due to permanent or long-term residence abroad beyond permitted years.
Not applicable to Ethiopia.

Renunciation
Voluntary loss of citizenship.
Ethiopian nationals have the right to renounce their Ethiopian nationality.
 Indelible allegiance: Person renouncing may not be released until obligations are discharged
or accused of a crime.

Substitution
Original citizenship is substituted by another state, where it is acquired through
naturalization.
When a particular territory is annexed by another state; the inhabitants’ citizenship within the
annexed territory will be replaced by the citizenship of the subjugator.
Ethiopian citizens can lose Ethiopian nationality through renunciation and upon acquisition of
another country’s nationality.

Statelessness
The condition of having no citizenship.
Results from state failure, deprivation, or renunciation without gaining another nationality.
Can result from government action.