SS2 PHYSICS LESSON NOTES

FIRST TERM

1. Light Waves I
2. Light Waves I
3. Sound Waves
4. Human Eye
5. Midterm Examination
6. Application of Sound Waves
7. Midterm Break
8. Electric Charges
9. Description and Properties of Fields
10. Gravitational Field

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WEEK 1 & 2 - LIGHT WAVES
INTRODUCTION TO LIGHT
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation that can be detected by the human eye.
It exhibits dual nature:
 Particle (photon, as per quantum theory)
 Wave (as per classical and modern wave theory)

In this lesson, we focus on the wave nature of light.

NATURE OF LIGHT WAVES

Property Description
Type Electromagnetic wave
Nature Transverse
Medium Does not require a medium
Speed in Vacuum 3.0×108 m/s
Frequency Range Around 4×1014 to7.5×1014Hz
Wavelength Range Approximately 400 nm (violet) to 700 nm (red)

PROPERTIES OF LIGHT WAVES

1. Reflection of Light

 When light hits a smooth surface (like a mirror) and bounces back.
 Laws of Reflection:
1. Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
2. Incident ray, reflected ray, and normal lie in the same plane
 Applications: Mirrors, periscopes, rearview mirrors

2. Refraction of Light

 Bending of light when it passes from one transparent medium to another.

 Caused by a change in speed of light in different media
 Laws of Refraction (Snell’s Law):

2
 sin i � �
sin r
= �1 =�1
2 2

Where:
o i = angle of incidence
o r = angle of refraction
o v1​ ,v2​ = speeds in medium 1 and 2
o n = refractive index
Applications: Lenses, eyeglasses, camera lenses, prisms
Example 1:
A student in a lecture theatre can read from the board clearly but requires a pair of spectacles to
read from a book.
- What eye defect has this student?
Answer: Long sightedness or (Hypermetropia)/hyperopia

Example 2:
A ray of light is incident on air-glass boundary at an angle θ. If the angle between the partially
reflected ray and the refracted ray is 90o, calculate θ, given that the refractive index of glass is
1.50.
Solution:

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According to Shell's law
n = sinθ/sin r
where n = 1.5 but r + 90o + 0 = 180o (sum of angles on a straight line)
r = 180 - (90 + θ)
r = 90o - θ
substitute 90o - θ for r in above
����
1.5 = sin 90−�

θ = 1.5(90 - θ)
θ = tan-1 [1.5]
=56.31o

3. Dispersion of Light
 Splitting of white light into its component colours when it passes through a prism.
 Occurs because different colours have different speeds in glass → different angles of
refraction.
 Colours in order: Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet (ROYGBIV)

4. Diffraction of Light
 Bending or spreading of light waves around obstacles or through small openings.
 More noticeable with very small apertures and longer wavelengths.
 Application: Optical instruments, telescope design

5. Interference of Light
 Occurs when two light waves overlap to form a new wave pattern.
 Types:
o Constructive interference: Bright fringes
o Destructive interference: Dark fringes
 Experiment: Young’s double-slit experiment
 Application: Anti-reflective coatings, holography

6. Polarization of Light
 Restriction of light wave oscillations to a single plane

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  Only transverse waves (like light) can be polarized
 Applications: Polarized sunglasses, photography, 3D cinema glasses

Uses Of Polaroid
- It is used to eliminate reflected lights /rays
- It is useful in sachirimetry/measurement of concentration of sugar solution
- It is used in sunglasses to reduce the intensity of sunlight
-To eliminate reflected light
-Stress analysis/photo elasticity

CONCAVE AND CONVEX MIRRORS

 A concave mirror (also called a converging mirror) is a spherical mirror with its
reflecting surface curved inward, like the interior of a spoon.
 A convex mirror (also called a diverging mirror) is a spherical mirror with its
reflecting surface curved outward, like the back of a spoon.

PARTS OF A SPHERICAL MIRROR

 Pole (P): The center of the mirror’s surface.
 Center of Curvature (C): The center of the sphere from which the mirror is made.
 Radius of Curvature (R): Distance between C and P.
 Principal Axis: A straight line passing through P and C.
 Focus (F): The point where parallel rays converge (concave) or appear to diverge from
(convex) after reflection.
 Focal Length (f): Distance between P and F.
�
f=2

Concave Mirror – Image Formation for Different Object Positions

Object Position Image Position Nature of Image
At infinity At focus (F) Real, inverted, highly diminished
Beyond C Between C and F Real, inverted, diminished
At C At C Real, inverted, same size

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Between C and F Beyond C Real, inverted, enlarged
At F At infinity Real, inverted, highly enlarged
Between F and P Behind mirror Virtual, erect, enlarged

Convex Mirror – Image Formation

 For all object positions, the image is:
o Virtual
o Erect
o Diminished
o Formed behind the mirror

Mirror Formula and Magnification

Mirror Formula:

1 1 1
�
=�+�

Where: f = focal length, v = image distance, u = object distance

(sign conventions apply: real is positive, virtual is negative)
Magnification (M):

������ �� �����
M = ������ �� ������ = vu

 For concave mirror, f is positive when image is real, and negative when virtual.
 For convex mirror, f is always negative.

Uses of Concave and Convex Mirrors

a. Concave Mirrors:
 In torches, flashlights, and car headlights (to produce a strong, parallel beam of light).
 As shaving/makeup mirrors (gives magnified upright image).
 In telescopes and solar cookers.
b. Convex Mirrors:
 As rear-view mirrors in vehicles (wide field of view).

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  In security and surveillance (stores, hallways).
 At road junctions and blind corners.
Example 1:
An object is placed 30 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 10 cm. Find the position,
nature, and magnification of the image.
Solution:
Given:
u = −30 cm, f = −10 cm (concave mirror uses sign convention)
1 1 1
Applying the formula, � = � + �

1 1 1
−10
= � + −30

1 1 1
−10
+ 30 = �

−3+1 1
30
=�

1 −2 −1
�
= 30
= 15
​ ⇒ v = −15cm

Image is real, inverted, and formed 15 cm in front of the mirror.

M = vu = −15 – 30 = 0.5

Image is half the size of the object.

Example 2:
The distance between a concave mirror and a object placed in front of it is 1.0m. If the radius of
curvature of the mirror is 4.0m, the image formed will be

Solution
1 1 1
Recall: �
=�−�

v = image distance, u = object distance; f = focal length

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 �
�=
2
Given: v = ? u = 1.0m
4
� = = 2�
2
1 1 1
= −
� 2 1
1 −1
=
� 2

� =− 2

SPEED OF LIGHT IN DIFFERENT MEDIA

Medium Approximate Speed (m/s)

Vacuum 3.0×1083.0
Air ≈2.98×108
Water ≈2.25×108
Glass ≈2.00×108

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Other components (in order of increasing frequency):+

 Radio → Microwave → Infrared → Visible Light → Ultraviolet → X-ray → Gamma

rays

APPLICATIONS OF LIGHT WAVES

Property Application
Reflection Mirrors, solar cookers
Refraction Lenses, vision correction
Dispersion Rainbow, spectrometry
Diffraction Spectroscopy, telescopes
Interference Fiber optics, sensors

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Polarization Sunglasses, LCD screens

Factors that Affect Angle of Deviation

1. Refracting angle of Prism
2. Refracting index of the material of prism
3. Angle of Incidence

Example 1:
The angle of refraction(r) of a ray of white light from air through a triangular glass prism of
refraction index 1.5 is 29.0o. Calculate the angle through which the ray is least deviated.
Solution
n = [Sin1/2(A + Dm)] / [Sin 1/2(A)]
A = 2r = 2×29 = 58
Sin1/2(A + Dm) = n Sin1/2(A)
1/2 (A + Dm) = Sin -1 (1.5 × Sin 1/2 × 58)= Sin -1 0.7272 = 46.67
58+ Dm = 93.32
Dm = 35.32os

Example 2:
Calculate the critical angle for the light travelling from glass to air.
[Refractive index of glass = 1.5]
Solution
1
���������� ����� (�) = sin �

η = 1.5
1
1.5 =
��� �
1
sin � =
1.5
���� = 0.6667
C = sin-1(0.6667)
C = 41.81∘

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EVALUATION
1. Define light as a wave and list three wave properties of light.
2. State and explain two laws of reflection.
3. Calculate the wavelength of light of frequency 5×1014 Hz
4. A light wave has a wavelength of 600 nm. Find its frequency.
5. Draw diagrams to show:
a) Reflection of light
b) Refraction of light+
c) Dispersion of light through a prism

ASSIGNMENT
1. A ray of light is incident on a glass block at 45°. If the refractive index of glass is 1.5,
calculate the angle of refraction.
2. Discuss the phenomenon of polarization and give two practical applications.
3. Explain Young’s double-slit experiment and state what it proves about the nature of light.

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WEEK 3 - SOUND WAVES
MEANING OF SOUND AND SOUND WAVES
 Sound is a form of energy produced by vibrating objects and transmitted through a
medium (solid, liquid, or gas) in the form of longitudinal mechanical waves.
 Sound Waves are longitudinal waves that propagate due to the compression and
rarefaction of particles in a medium.
Characteristics:
 They require a material medium to propagate (i.e., cannot travel in a vacuum).
 They are mechanical and longitudinal in nature.
 Sound waves move faster in solids than in liquids and gases.

PRODUCTION OF SOUND
 Sound is produced by vibrating bodies, such as vocal cords, strings of musical
instruments, and loudspeakers.
 The vibration causes the surrounding air particles to vibrate, producing compressions and
rarefactions.

PROPAGATION OF SOUND
Sound travels by the successive compressions and rarefactions of particles in a medium.
 Compression: Region of high pressure where particles are close together.
 Rarefaction: Region of low pressure where particles are far apart.
 Resonance: This is the effect felt/observed when a body vibrating with its own natural
frequency transfers its frequency to the bodies around it, such that they all vibrate with
the same frequency.

SOUND VIBRATION IN STRINGS

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 Second overtone
3�
1=
2
F3 = 3F0

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND WAVES

1. Frequency (f): Number of vibrations per second (Hz).
2. Amplitude (A): Maximum displacement of the wave from equilibrium – determines
loudness.
3. Wavelength (λ): Distance between two successive compressions or rarefactions.
4. Speed (v): Rate at which sound travels through a medium.
V = fλ

RANGE OF HEARING
 Infrasonic: Below 20 Hz (e.g., earthquakes).
 Audible: 20 Hz – 20,000 Hz (Human range).
 Ultrasonic: Above 20,000 Hz (e.g., sonar, medical ultrasound).

SPEED OF SOUND IN DIFFERENT MEDIA

Medium Speed (m/s)
Air (at 20°C) 343
Water 1,480
Iron 5,120

Note: Sound travels fastest in solids and slowest in gases because of particle density and
elasticity.

BEHAVIOUR OF SOUND WAVES

1. Reflection of Sound:
o Produces echoes when sound reflects off a hard surface.
o Echo time gap must be ≥ 0.1 sec to be heard separately.
2. Refraction of Sound:

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 o Occurs when sound passes through different layers (e.g., warm to cold air).
o Changes direction due to change in speed.
3. Diffraction of Sound:
o Bending of sound waves around obstacles or through openings.
o Explains why we can hear sounds around corners.
4. Interference of Sound:
o Occurs when two waves superimpose to form a resultant wave.
o Leads to loud (constructive) or soft (destructive) sounds.

APPLICATIONS OF SOUND WAVES

1. Sonar (Sound Navigation and Ranging):
o Used in ships/submarines to detect underwater objects using ultrasonic waves.
2. Ultrasound in Medicine:
o Imaging of internal organs (e.g., foetus in the womb).
3. Industrial Non-Destructive Testing:
o Detecting cracks or flaws in materials.
4. Sound Communication:
o Speech, telecommunication, public address systems.

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

Example 1:
A sound wave has a frequency of 250 Hz and a wavelength of 1.4 m. Calculate its speed.

V = fλ =250×1.4 = 350 m/s

Example 2:
If the speed of sound in air is 340 m/s and the wavelength is 0.85 m, find the frequency.

F = vλ = 340 x 0.85 = 400 Hz

Example 3:

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A sonometer wire has a frequency of 259Hz. It is sounded alongside a tuning fork of frequency
256Hz. Calculate the beat frequency.

Solution
Beat frequency = f1 - f2 = (259 - 256)Hz = 3Hz

EVALUATION
1. Define sound and explain how it is produced.
2. Mention three characteristics of sound waves.
3. Differentiate between ultrasonic and infrasonic sounds.
4. What is the speed of sound in air, water, and iron?
5. Describe how echoes are formed.
6. Calculate the frequency of a sound wave with a speed of 330 m/s and wavelength of 1.1m.
7. Explain one application of ultrasonic waves in medicine.

ASSIGNMENT
1. List five differences between sound waves and light waves.
2. Draw a labeled diagram of a longitudinal wave showing compression and rarefaction.
3. If an echo is heard 1.5 seconds after a sound is made, and the speed of sound is 340 m/s,
find the distance to the wall.

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WEEK 4 - HUMAN EYE
STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN EYE
The human eye is a natural optical instrument that enables us to see by detecting light and
converting it into electrical signals sent to the brain.

Major Parts of the Human Eye and Their Functions:

Part Function
Cornea Transparent front layer that helps focus light into the eye
Iris Coloured part that controls the size of the pupil (thus controlling light entry)
Pupil Opening in the centre of the iris through which light enters
Lens Transparent, flexible, convex lens that focuses light on the retina
Ciliary Alter the shape (curvature) of the lens to focus objects (accommodation)
muscles
Retina Light-sensitive layer that contains photoreceptor cells (rods and cones); it
converts light into electrical impulses
Optic nerve Carries the electrical impulses from the retina to the brain
Aqueous Fluid between the cornea and lens; helps maintain pressure and nourishes the
humor eye
Vitreous Gel-like substance between the lens and retina; helps maintain the shape of the
humor eye
Sclera White, protective outer layer of the eye

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IMAGE FORMATION IN THE HUMAN EYE
 Light from an object enters the eye through the cornea, passes through the aqueous
humor, pupil, lens, and vitreous humor, then falls on the retina.
 The lens converges light rays to form a real, inverted, and diminished image on the
retina.
 The retina converts the image into electrical signals, which are carried to the brain via
the optic nerve.
 The brain interprets the image as upright and properly oriented.

ACCOMMODATION AND DEFECTS OF VISION AND THEIR CORRECTIONS

Accommodation is the ability of the eye to adjust the focal length of the lens to focus on near
or distant objects.
 For near objects, the ciliary muscles contract, making the lens thicker and more
convex.
 For distant objects, the ciliary muscles relax, making the lens flatter.

Description Cause Correction

Defect
Short-sightedness Can see near objects Eyeball too long or Use of concave lens to
(Myopia) clearly, but distant ones lens too curved diverge light rays
appear blurred
Long-sightedness Can see distant objects Eyeball too short or Use of convex lens to
(Hypermetropia) clearly, but near ones lens too flat converge light rays
appear blurred
Astigmatism Blurred or distorted Irregular curvature Use of cylindrical
vision at all distances of the cornea or lenses
lens
Presbyopia Inability to focus on Weakening of Use of bifocal lenses
near objects due to ciliary muscles and
aging lens rigidity

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Cataract Clouding of the lens Aging or injury Surgery (lens
replacement)
Color blindness Inability to distinguish Genetic (defect in No full correction; use
certain colors cone cells) of color filters or
special glasses

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE HUMAN EYE AND A

CAMERA

Similarities

Feature Human Eye Camera

Image forming part Lens Camera lens
Image-sensitive surface Retina Film or digital sensor
Light control Iris and pupil Diaphragm and aperture
Focusing Ciliary muscles change lens shape Camera lens moves
Protection Eyelids and tear glands Camera casing and lens cover

Differences:

 The eye uses a flexible lens to focus; the camera uses a movable lens.
 The retina in the eye acts as the screen; the camera uses a photographic film or sensor.

CARE OF THE EYES

1. Avoid reading in dim light.
2. Do not look directly at bright light (e.g., sun, lasers).
3. Visit an optometrist regularly.
4. Eat vitamin A-rich foods (e.g., carrots, spinach).
5. Avoid prolonged screen time.
6. Wear protective glasses when necessary.

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Evaluation Questions
1. List five parts of the human eye and state their functions.
2. Explain how the eye forms an image.
3. What is accommodation?
4. Describe two defects of vision and their corrections.
5. 4. NECO June 2012 (Paper 1, Q20)
The part of the eye that controls the amount of light entering it is the:
A. retina
B. cornea
C. iris
D. lens
6. 7. WAEC June 2011 (Paper 1, Q19)
Which of the following defects of the eye is caused by the eyeball being too long?
A. Astigmatism
B. Long-sightedness
C. Short-sightedness
D. Colour blindness
Assignment
1. WAEC June 2017 (Paper 2, Q5a)
Name five parts of the human eye and state the function of each.
2. WAEC June 2009 (Paper 2, Q3a)
Explain how the eye accommodates to focus on near and distant objects.
3. WAEC June 2013 (Paper 2, Q6a)
State the defect of vision corrected by a concave lens and how it works.
4. NECO June 2019 (Paper 2, Q4a)
What type of lens is used to correct long-sightedness? Explain how it works.
5. NECO June 2015 (Paper 2, Q6b)
Describe briefly how a person suffering from astigmatism can have their vision corrected.

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WEEK 6 - APPLICATION OF SOUND WAVE

SCIENTIFIC PROPERTIES THAT ENABLE APPLICATION OF SOUND WAVES

 Reflection of sound (echoes) – used in SONAR and echolocation
 Refraction – used in sound focusing (medical and industrial applications)
 Diffraction – sound bending around corners (important in speaker design)
 Interference – used in noise-cancelling headphones
 Frequency and wavelength – ultrasonic vs infrasonic waves
 Amplitude and intensity – loudness detection, used in alarms and meters.

FIELDS OF APPLICATION
1. Medicine
a. Diagnostic Imaging – Ultrasound (Sonography):
 High-frequency sound waves (above 20 kHz) are directed into the body.
 Echoes from tissues of varying densities are recorded to form an image.
 Common for prenatal imaging, liver, kidney, and heart examinations.
 Advantages: Safe (non-ionizing), real-time, painless
 Limitation: Cannot penetrate bones or gas-filled cavities
b. Therapeutic Ultrasound:
 Used in physiotherapy to treat muscle injuries, reduce pain, and promote healing
 Vibrations generate localized heat in tissues
 Also used for breaking up kidney stones (lithotripsy)

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2. Communication
a. Microphones and Loudspeakers:
 Microphones convert sound (mechanical wave) to electrical signals
 Speakers do the reverse, converting electrical signals to audible sound
 Used in: Phones, PA systems, radios, hearing aids
b. Sound in Telecommunication:
 Modulation of sound waves for long-distance transmission
 Sound wave conversion used in GSM and voice recognition systems
c. Voice-controlled Systems:
 Smart assistants like Siri, Alexa, Google Assistant use sound wave input
 Commands are processed using sound recognition algorithms
3. Industry and Engineering
a. Ultrasonic Cleaning:
 High-frequency vibrations agitate cleaning solution
 Loosens dirt from delicate items like jewelry, watches, circuit boards
b. Non-Destructive Testing (NDT):
 High-frequency waves detect internal flaws/cracks in materials
 Applied in aircraft maintenance, oil pipelines, bridges, buildings
c. Sound-based Welding:
 Ultrasonic welding used to join plastics and even metals in precise applications
4. Music and Entertainment
a. Musical Instruments:
 Vibrations from strings, membranes, or air columns produce musical sounds
 String (violin), wind (flute), and percussion (drum) instruments
b. Audio Technology:
 Speakers, earphones, and recording studios use sound wave manipulation
 Equalizers modify amplitude and frequency for better audio quality
5. Security and Surveillance
a. Ultrasonic Motion Detectors:
 Emit high-frequency sound waves
 Detect motion by sensing changes in the reflected sound pattern

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b. Burglar Alarms and Sound Sensors:
 Alarm systems detect specific sound frequencies (e.g., glass shattering)
 Used in banks, homes, and safes
6. Nature and Biology
a. Echolocation:
 Used by bats, dolphins, whales, and some birds
 Animals emit ultrasonic sounds and analyze returning echoes to:
o Avoid obstacles
o Locate prey
o Navigate in darkness
b. Animal Communication:
 Elephants use infrasonic waves to communicate over long distances
 Some animals detect natural sound signals like thunder or predator movements
7. Seismology and Earthquake Monitoring
 Seismic waves (a form of sound waves) used to study Earth’s interior
 Geophones detect low-frequency sound waves from earthquakes
 Help in:
o Earthquake early warning systems
o Oil and mineral exploration
o Volcanic monitoring

NAVIGATION, DETECTION & RANGING

a. SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging): This is a pulse-wave techniques that uses sound
wave to navigate ships and submarines and detects depth of water.
 Emits sound pulses underwater and detects echoes to determine object position.
 Used in:
o Submarines for underwater navigation
o Fishing vessels to locate schools of fish
o Ocean floor mapping
 Formula:
Velocity of Sound × Time
Distance = 2

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 (Divided by 2 because sound travels to the object and back)
b. Radar vs SONAR:
 Radar uses radio waves (electromagnetic), SONAR uses sound (mechanical).
 SONAR is preferred underwater due to better propagation of sound in water.

LIMITATIONS OF SOUND WAVE APPLICATIONS

 Cannot travel through a vacuum (requires medium)
 Affected by obstacles, temperature, pressure, and humidity
 High-frequency ultrasonic equipment is costly
 Noise pollution and distortion in communication
 Limited range compared to electromagnetic waves (radio, light)

EVALUATION
1. Define SONAR and state one use in industry.
2. How does ultrasound work in medical imaging?
3. Explain how echolocation works and list two animals that use it.
4. Mention three limitations of sound wave technology.
5. Distinguish between ultrasonic and infrasonic sound with examples.

ASSIGNMENT
Research Report (1 page):
Investigate how sound waves are used in oil and gas exploration. Include:
 Tools used (e.g., geophones, seismic survey trucks)

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 How reflected seismic waves help find underground resources
 Environmental concerns

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WEEK EIGHT - ELECTRIC CHARGES

DEFINITION AND NATURE OF ELECTRIC CHARGE

Electric Charge is a fundamental property of matter that causes it to experience a force when
placed in an electromagnetic field. It is responsible for electric and magnetic phenomena.
Microscopic View:
 Atoms consist of protons (+), electrons (−), and neutrons (neutral).
 Protons and electrons carry equal and opposite charges.
 The net charge of an atom is normally zero (neutral).
 When electrons are gained or lost, the body becomes [Link] Unit: Coulomb (C)
 Symbol: q or Q

TYPES OF ELECTRIC CHARGES

1. Positive Charges (+): Due to the loss of electrons. Found in protons.
2. Negative Charges (−): Due to the gain of electrons. Found in electrons

BASIC LAWS OF ELECTRIC CHARGES

1. Like charges repel each other.
2. Unlike charges attract each other.
Law of Charges: Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.

METHODS OF CHARGING A BODY

1. Charging by Friction
 When two different materials are rubbed together, one loses electrons, the other gains.

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  Examples:
o Glass rod + Silk → glass becomes positively charged.
o Ebonite rod + Fur → ebonite becomes negatively charged.
2. Charging by Conduction (Contact)
 A charged object touches a neutral object.
 Charges flow from the charged to the neutral body.
 The neutral body becomes similarly charged.

Charging by Induction
 A charged object is brought close to a neutral object (without touching).
 Charges in the neutral object redistribute.

 The object is earthed (grounded), allowing electrons to move.

 On removing the original charged body, the neutral object becomes oppositely charged.

PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGES

1. Two types only: Positive and negative.
2. Additively: Charges add algebraically (e.g., +5 C + −3 C = +2 C).
3. Conservation of Charge: Charges can neither be created nor destroyed, only transferred.
4. Quantization of Charge:
o Charge exists in discrete units.
o Smallest unit is elementary charge (e):
e = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C
q = ne, where n is an integer

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 Example:
q = 5 × 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ = 8.0 × 10⁻¹⁹ C
5. Forces between charges: Charges exert attractive or repulsive electrostatic forces
governed by Coulomb’s Law.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF CHARGE

The total electric charge in an isolated system remains constant.
 In chemical reactions, decay, or charge transfer, the total charge before and after remains
unchanged.

CONDUCTORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND INSULATORS

Type Definition Examples
Conductors Materials that allow free movement of charges Copper, Aluminium,
Graphite
Insulators Materials that do not allow charge movement Rubber, Glass, Plastic,
Wood
Semiconductors Conduct poorly at low temperature, conduct better Silicon, Germanium
when heated or doped

DETECTION OF ELECTRIC CHARGE – GOLD-LEAF ELECTROSCOPE

Structure:
 Metal rod with a metal disc at the top.
 Gold leaves attached inside a glass jar.
 Earth wire connected to discharge excess charge.

Working Principle:
 When a charged body touches the disc, charge travels down and spreads to the gold
leaves, making them diverge due to repulsion.
Uses:
 Detect presence and type of electric charge.
 Determine quantity of charge (roughly).

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  Test insulation of materials.

Diagram of a labeled gold-leaf electroscope with diverging leaves.

REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC CHARGES

1. Photocopiers and laser printers – work by charging specific areas of paper.
2. Spray painting – ensures even coating by using opposite charges.
3. Air purifiers and chimney stacks – remove particles using electric charges.
4. Lightning – results from discharge of built-up static charge in clouds.
5. Electrostatic precipitators – reduce pollution by removing dust from gases.

EVALUATION
1. The minimum charge a body can have is ____
D. 6.022 × 10²³ C C. 9.8 N/kg B. 3.0 × 10⁸ C A. 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C
2. Define electric charge and give its SI unit.
3. List and explain three methods of charging a body.
4. State and explain the law of conservation of charge.
5. With the aid of a diagram, explain how an electroscope works.
6. Calculate the total charge carried by 4.0 × 10¹⁹ electrons.
Solution to Q5:
Given:

27
  Number of electrons = 4.0 × 10¹⁹
 Charge of one electron = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C
q = n × e = 4.0 × 10¹⁹ × 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ = 6.4 C

ASSIGNMENT
1. With a well-labeled diagram, describe the working of a gold-leaf electroscope.
2. List five differences between conductors and insulators.
3. Give two examples each of materials that become positively and negatively charged
when rubbed.

28
WEEK NINE - DESCRIPTION AND PROPERTIES OF FIELDS
MEANING OF FIELD IN PHYSICS
In physics, a field is a region of space where an object experiences a force due to the presence of
another object without physical contact.

Key Points:
 Fields explain action at a distance.
 Fields may be scalar or vector quantities.
o Scalar field: Only magnitude (e.g., temperature field).
o Vector field: Has both magnitude and direction (e.g., gravitational, electric, and
magnetic fields).

TYPES OF FIELDS
1. Gravitational Field
o Source: Mass.
o Acts on: Other masses.
o Nature of Force: Always attractive.
o Example: Earth’s gravitational pull on objects.
2. Electric Field
o Source: Electric charge.
o Acts on: Other electric charges.
o Nature of Force: Attractive or repulsive depending on the charges.
o Example: Electrostatic force between charged balloons.
3. Magnetic Field
o Source: Moving charges or magnets.
o Acts on: Magnetic materials or moving charges.
o Nature of Force: Can attract or repel.
o Example: Interaction between two bar magnets or between a current-carrying wire
and a compass needle.
o

29
REPRESENTATION OF FIELDS
1. Field Lines (Lines of Force)
 Imaginary lines used to represent the direction and strength of the field.
 Direction: Shows the direction of force on a test object.
 Spacing: The closer the lines, the stronger the field.
 Important Rules:
o Field lines never cross.
o Field lines originate and terminate based on source:
 Electric Field: From positive to negative.
 Gravitational Field: Toward mass.
 Magnetic Field:2 From North to South outside the magnet.

VECTOR REPRESENTATION
 Each point in the field has a vector showing the direction and magnitude of the force.
 Useful in computational modeling.
Field Strength
Field strength is defined as the force experienced by a unit quantity placed in the field.
6. Gravitational Field Strength (g)

� ��
g=�= ��

G = 6.674×10-11 Nm2/kg2
 M: Mass producing the field.
 r: Distance from the source mass.
 Unit: N/kg

7. Electric Field Strength (E)

� ��
E= � = ��
​

 k= 8.99×109 Nm2/C2
 Q: Source charge.

30
  Unit: N/C or V/m

8. Magnetic Field Strength (B)

� �
F = BILsinθ ⇒ B = ������ or B = �� ����

 Unit: Tesla (T)

 I: Current, L: Length of conductor, θ: Angle to magnetic field.

PROPERTIES OF FIELDS
Property Gravitational Field Electric Field Magnetic Field
Source Mass Charge Magnet or current
Nature Always attractive Attractive/Repulsive Attractive/Repulsive
Field lines Point inward +ve to –ve N to S (outside)
Force type Conservative Conservative Non-conservative
Affected by Mass Charge Magnetic material
Medium effect Weak Strong Depends on medium
Obeys inverse square law Yes Yes Yes (in some cases)
Can cancel Yes Yes Yes

Inverse Square Law

 This is the general law that is applies to gravitational and electric fields: This implies that
doubling the distance reduces the field strength by a factor of 4.

� ��
Field strength E = � = ��

SUPERPOSITION OF FIELDS
 When multiple fields act at a point, the resultant field is the vector sum of individual
fields.
 Important in:
o Electric dipoles.
o Magnetic field interaction.
o Multiple gravitational sources.
31
1. Gravitational Field around a Mass

2. Electric Field Between Two Charges

 Like charges:

 Unlike charges:

32
3. Magnetic Field Around a Bar Magnet

SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example 1:
What is the gravitational field strength of 4m from a mass of 10kg?

Solution

To calculate the gravitational field strength at a distance of r = 4m from a mass M = 10kg, we

use the formula:​

� ��
g=�= ��

Given that: g = Gravitational field strength (N/kg), G = 6.674×10−11 Nm2/kg2, M = 10kg, r =

4m

6.674 × 10−11 × 10 6.674 × 10−10

g= 42
= 16
= 4.17125×10−11N/kg

So, the gravitational field strength at 4 meters from a 10 kg mass is approximately

4.17×10−11N/kg.

33
Example 2:
Find the electric field strength at 2m from a charge of 5.0×10-6 C.

Solution

� ��
E= � = ��
​

8.99 × 109 × 5.0×10−� 8.99 × 109 × 5.0×10−� 44.9 ×10 3

= ��
=
�
=
�
= 11,237.5N/C

Given that: E = Electric field strength (N/C), k = 8.99×109 Nm2/C2 (Coulomb's constant), Q =
5.0×10−6C,

Example 3
The force experienced by an object of mass 60.0 kg in the moon's gravitational field is 1.002 x
102 N. What is the intensity of the gravitational field?
Solution
�����
��������� �� ������������� ����� =
����
1.002 × 102�
=
60.0 ��
= 1.67Nkg-1

EVALUATION
Objective Questions

1. Which of these fields can be both attractive and repulsive?

A. Gravitational
B. Electric
C. Magnetic
D. Both B and C
Answer: D

34
 2. The gravitational field strength on Earth’s surface is approximately:
A. 10 N/kg
B. 9.8 N/kg
C. 6.7 N/kg
D. 8.0 N/kg
Answer: B

Theory Questions

1. Define a field. List and explain three types of fields.

2. Compare gravitational, electric, and magnetic fields using four criteria.
3. With diagrams, describe the field lines around:
a. A point charge
b. A dipole
c. A bar magnet
4. Solve: A force of 2 N acts on a 0.5 C charge. Find the electric field strength.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Draw and label field lines:
o Between two like electric charges.
o Between two opposite charges.
o Around a bar magnet.
2. State five characteristics of each type of field discussed.

35
WEEK TEN - GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

DEFINITION OF A GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

A gravitational field is defined as a region of space surrounding a mass in which another mass
experiences a force of gravitational attraction.

 It is a vector field: It has both magnitude and direction.

 The direction of the gravitational field at a point is always toward the mass producing
the field.
 It exists around all masses, but is only noticeable around massive bodies like Earth,
planets, and stars.

CONCEPT OF FIELD LINES

 Gravitational fields are represented using field lines or lines of force.

 These lines:
o Always point inward toward the center of mass.
o Are radial for spherical bodies.
o Never cross one another.
o Are denser near the surface (indicating stronger fields).

Gravitational Field Lines Around a Spherical Body

Arrows = Direction of the field (toward the mass center)

36
NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION
“Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between their centers.”
Mathematical Form:
��1�2
F= �2

Where:
 F: gravitational force between two bodies (N)
 m1,m2​ : masses of the two objects (kg)
 r: distance between the centers of the two bodies (m)
 G: universal gravitational constant = 6.674×10-11Nm2/kg2

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH (G)

The gravitational field strength at a point is the force per unit mass experienced by a small
test mass placed at that point.

� ��
g=�= ��

G = 6.674×10-11 Nm2/kg2

 M: Mass producing the field.

 r : Distance from the source mass.
 Unit: N/kg

At the Surface of the Earth:

��
g= �2�� ≅ 9.8�/�2
�

Where:
 ME = 5.98×1024 kg
 RE= 6.37×106m

37
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MASS, WEIGHT, AND G
 Mass (m): Scalar quantity; amount of matter; unit: kg.
 Weight (W): Vector quantity; gravitational force on a mass:
W = mg

Variation Of G With Altitude And Depth

1. With Altitude (Above Earth's Surface):
��
gh= �+ℎ 2

Where:
 h: altitude above Earth’s surface.
 R: Earth’s radius.
As h increases, g decreases.
2. With Depth (Below Earth’s Surface):

�
gd= go (1 - � )

Where:
 gd​ : gravitational field strength at depth ddd
 gO​ : field strength at the surface
 R: Earth’s radius
As d increases, g decreases linearly.

Step 6: GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY (U)

This is the energy a mass possesses due to its position in a gravitational field:

��
U=− �

Negative sign indicates the field is attractive.

 Work must be done to separate masses (i.e., increase r).

38
Properties of Gravitational Fields
Property Explanation
Vector Field Has both magnitude and direction (towards mass).
Conservative Work done is path-independent; energy conserved.
Always Attractive Gravitational force only pulls, never pushes.
Obeys Inverse Square Law Field strength decreases with square of distance.
Infinite Range Extends to infinity, though it weakens with distance.
Superposition Applies Net field at a point is vector sum of individual fields.

Step 7: Applications of Gravitational Field Concept

 Weight determination.
 Satellite motion and orbiting.
 Planetary motion and space travel.
 Free fall and projectile motion analysis.
 Tides caused by Moon’s gravitational pull.
 Structure of stars and galaxies.

Solved Examples
Example 1:
The earth's gravitational field intensity at its surface is about
(G = 6.7 × 10-11Nm2/kg2, mass of the earth is 6 × 1024kg, radius of the earth is 6.4 × 106m, g on
the earth = 9.8m/s2)
Solution
� ���/�2 ��
�= = = 2
� � �
6.7 × 10−11 × 6 × 1024
�= = 9.8���
(6.4 × 106)2
E = g = 9.8N/kg

Example 2:

39
Calculate the force of attraction between a star of mass 2.00 × 1030 kg and the earth assuming the
star is located 1.50 × 108km from the earth.
[Mass of the earth = 5.98 × 1024kg, G = 6.67 × 10-11Nm2kg-2, g = 10ms-2

Solution
��� �
����� � =
�2

Substituting,
6.67 × 10−11 × 5.98 × 1024 × 2 × 1030
�=
(1.5 × 108)2

= 3.5455 × 1028N
Example 3:
The force of attraction between two point masses is 10-4N when the distance between them is
0.18m. If the distance is reduced to 0.06m, calculate the force.
Solution
1
�∝
�2

�1 �22
=
�2 �21

10−4 (0.06)2
=
�2 (0.18)2

10−4 × 0.182
�2 =
0.062

F2 = 9 × 10-4N

40
Evaluation Questions
1. Gravitational force between two bodies is:
A. Repulsive
B. Attractive
C. Either
D. Zero
Answer: B
2. Which quantity remains constant irrespective of location?
A. Weight
B. Mass
C. Gravitational force
D. Gravitational potential energy
Answer: B
3. If the distance between two bodies is halved, the gravitational force becomes:
A. Doubled
B. Four times
C. Half
D. Quarter
Answer: B
Theory Questions
1. Define gravitational field strength and derive its expression.
2. State Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation and explain the significance of each term.
3. Describe the variation of gravitational field with altitude.
4. A 50 kg body is placed at a point where the gravitational field strength is 9.8 N/kg.
Calculate its weight.
Assignment
1. A satellite is orbiting at 400 km above Earth’s surface. Calculate the gravitational field
strength at that height.
(Use RE=6.37×106 m, G=6.674×10−11 Nm2/kg2)
2. A man weighs 800 N on Earth. What will be his weight on the Moon if the gravitational
field on the Moon is 1.63 N/kg?

41
42
SS2 PHYSICS LESSON NOTES
SECOND TERM

1. Electric Field
2. Magnetic Fields
3. Electro-magnetic Field
4. Simple A.C. Circuits
5. Midterm examination
6. Battery
7. Midterm break
8. Solar Collector

43
WEEK 1 - ELECTRIC FIELD
MEANING OF ELECTRIC FIELD

An electric field is a region of space around a charged body where another charge experiences
a force.
It is a vector field, because it has both magnitude and direction.

Key Terms:

 Source Charge (Q): The charge creating the electric field.

 Test Charge (q): A small charge placed in the field to detect its presence.

DIRECTION OF ELECTRIC FIELD

 For a positive charge, the electric field radiates outward.

 For a negative charge, the field lines point inward toward the charge.
 The field direction is defined as the direction of force on a positive test charge.

ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH (E)

Electric field strength is the force per unit positive charge experienced by a small test charge in
the field.
�
E = �​

Where:

 E = Electric field strength (N/C or V/m)

 F = Force on test charge (N)
 q = Magnitude of test charge (C)

For a Point Charge:

��
E= ��
​

Where:
44
  Q: Source charge (C)
 r: Distance from the charge (m)
 k = 14πε0 = 8.99×109 Nm2/C2
 ε0​ : Permittivity of free space = 8.85×10−12 C2/Nm2

Coulomb’s Law

The law states that the force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of
the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

��� ��
F= ��
​

Where:

 q = Two point charges (C)

 r = Separation between charges (m)
 F = Force between them (N)

Nature of Force:

 Attractive if charges are opposite.

 Repulsive if charges are like.

Properties of Electric Fields

Property Explanation
Vector Field Has both magnitude and direction.
Obeys Inverse Square Law Strength decreases as distance increases.
Direction Defined as direction of force on a positive test charge.
Conservative Field Work done is path-independent.
Fields Combine by Superposition Total field is vector sum of all individual fields.
Strength Depends on Medium Weaker in insulating materials than in vacuum.

45
REPRESENTATION OF ELECTRIC FIELDS

Electric Field Lines (Lines of Force):

 Imaginary lines that indicate the direction of the electric field.

 Properties:
1. Begin on positive charges and end on negative charges.
2. Never intersect.
3. The closer the lines, the stronger the field.
4. Field lines are perpendicular to the surface of a conductor.

Patterns of Electric Field

1. Positive Point Charge

→ Lines radiate outward

2. Negative Point Charge

→ Lines point inward

3. Two Like Charges

→ Lines repel and curve away from each other

46
4. Two Opposite Charges (Dipole)
→ Lines originate on the positive charge and terminate on the negative charge, forming a curved
pattern.

UNIFORM AND NON-UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELDS

 Uniform Electric Field:

o Field strength is constant in magnitude and direction.
o Created between two parallel plates.
o Field lines are parallel and equally spaced.
 Non-uniform Electric Field:
o Field strength varies with position.
o Found around point charges or irregular charge distributions.

Electric Field in a Medium

The presence of a medium reduces the electric field strength compared to vacuum.

�
E = ��� �
��

Where ε = εr ​ : Relative permittivity (dielectric constant)

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATION

Conductor: These are those materials through which electricity can flow easily. Examples are
all metals (such as silver, iron, aluminum, zinc, brass, copper etc.), water, inorganic acid
solutions, damp air, etc.

Insulator: These are those materials which do not allow electric current to flow through them
easily. Examples are ebonite, glass, dry wood, plastics, organic acids solution etc.

Resistance: This is the opposition to the flow of electric current. Its S. I. Units is in ohm (Ω). A
component that is designed to over a certain amount of resistance in a circuit is called a resistor.

47
Arrangements/Connection of Resistor in an Electric Circuit

1. Series connection: This is when two resistors are connected in a circuit such that there are
connected end to end and the same current passes through each them.

Mathematically, R = R1 + R2 + R3 + …Rn

2. Parallel connection: This is when two or more resistors are connected side by side in an
electric circuit such that their corresponding ends are joined together at two common
junctions. The amount of current passes through each resistors is inversely proportional
to the value of its resistance.

1 1 1 1
Mathematically, � = � +� + … �
1 2 �

Example 1:

Find the effective resistance in the diagram above.

Solution

From the diagram given, the same current will flow across the resistors, hence, they are in series.
Re = 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 24Ω

Example 2:

48
A 35 kΩ is connected in series with a resistance of 40 kΩ. What resistance R must be connected
in parallel with the combination so that the equivalent resistance is equal to 25 kΩ?

Solution

For The combinations in series

⇒ R1 = 35 kΩ + 40 kΩ = 75 kΩ

R Is Combined with 75 kΩ in parallel to give 25 kΩ

1 1 1
⇒ = +
Req R R1

1 1 1
⇒ = +
25 R 75

1 1 1
- =
⇒
25 75 R

3-1 1
=
2 1
75 R
⇒ =
75 R

75
⇒ =R

49
 2

∴ R = 37.5 kΩ

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES WITH GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS

Feature Electric Field Gravitational Field
Source Electric charge Mass
Nature Attractive or repulsive Always attractive
Inverse Square Law Yes Yes
Field Lines Positive to Negative Toward mass
Test Object Positive charge Mass
Constant k=4πε0​ 1​ G

Applications of Electric Fields

1. Cathode ray tubes – Electric field deflects electron beams.

2. Photocopiers and laser printers – Use static electric fields.
3. Electrostatic precipitators – Remove particles from exhaust.
4. Capacitors – Store energy in electric fields.
5. Particle accelerators – Use electric fields to accelerate particles.

Worked Examples
Example 1:

Find the electric field strength 0.1 m away from a point charge of 2.0×10−6 C2.

Solution

� � ×��� × � × ��−�
E = ��� ��
= (�.�)�
= 1.8 ×105N/C
�

50
Example 2:
What is the electric field, E, experienced by a charge of magnitude 4 nC at a point where the
electric force is 5 x 10-4 N in the x direction?
Solution
q = 4 nC = 4 x 10-9 C; F = 5 x 10-4 N; E = ?

F = qE

F 5 x 10-4
⇒ E= =
q 4 x 10-9

∴ E = 1.25 x 105 NC-1

Example 3:
Calculate the electric field intensity in vacuum at a distance of 20cm from a charge of 6×10-5C.
1
(Take = 9 × 109Nm2C-2)
4πε0
Solution:
Q
E =
4πε0r2

E = 9×109×6×10-5

0.22

E = 1.35 × 107NC-1

51
EVALUATION

1. Which of the following best defines electric field strength?

A. Charge per unit mass
B. Force per unit charge
C. Force per unit distance
D. Work per unit mass
Answer: B
2. The SI unit of electric field strength is:
A. N/m
B. J/C
C. N/C
D. C/N
Answer: C
3. Electric field lines:
A. Cross each other
B. End on positive charges
C. Start on negative charges
D. Never cross each other
Answer: D

Theory Questions

1. Define electric field and state its unit.

2. Derive the formula for the electric field due to a point charge.
3. A 2 μC charge experiences a force of 0.01 N in a field. Find the field strength.
4. Compare gravitational and electric fields (at least four points).

ASSIGNMENT
1. Draw field line diagrams for:
a. A positive point charge

52
 b. A dipole system
c. Two like charges
2. A test charge of 4μC experiences a force of 2×10−2 N. Calculate the electric field at that
point.
3. Two point charges of 6μC and 8μC are placed 3 m apart. Find the force between them.

WEEK 2 - MAGNETIC FIELDS

MEANING OF MAGNETIC FIELD

A magnetic field is defined as the region of space surrounding a magnet, current-carrying
conductor, or moving charged particle where a magnetic force is exerted on other magnetic
materials or moving charges.

SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELD

(i) Permanent Magnets

 Naturally occurring or artificially created magnets with permanent magnetic properties.

 Examples: Bar magnets, horseshoe magnets, neodymium magnets.
 Fields are strongest at poles.

53
(ii) Current-Carrying Conductors

 When electric current flows through a wire, it generates a magnetic field around it.
 The direction of the field is given by the Right-Hand Grip Rule.

(iii) Solenoids and Electromagnets

 A solenoid is a long coil of wire; when current flows through it, it acts like a bar magnet.
 Electromagnets consist of solenoids with iron cores to enhance the magnetic field.

(iv) Moving Charges

Any moving electric charge produces a magnetic field (basis for electromagnetism).

Uses of electromagnets
- Generators /electric motors
- Separation of iron scraps from debris
- Cranes for transporting heavy magnetic materials
- Electric bells /telephone earpieces
- Industrial robots[ in automobile assembly plants]
- Electromagnetic switches [magnetic relays ]
- Medical diagnosis [magnetic resonance scanners ]

MAGNETIC FIELD LINES (LINES OF FORCE)

This is an imaginary lines used to represent the direction and strength of a magnetic field.
Properties:

1. They originate from the North pole and terminate at the South pole outside the magnet.
2. They form closed loops, continuing through the magnet from south to north internally.
3. Field lines never intersect each other.
4. The density of lines indicates field strength – closer lines mean stronger fields.
5. Tangent to the field line at any point gives the direction of the field at that point.

54
 6. Magnetic field lines exhibit tension (they try to contract) and repulsion (they repel each
other sideways).

PATTERNS OF MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND SOURCES

(a) Bar Magnet:

 Field lines are strongest at poles.

 Shape: Symmetrical loops from North to South outside the magnet.

(b) Straight Current-Carrying Wire:

 Field lines form concentric circles around the wire.

 Use Right-Hand Grip Rule: Thumb points in current direction, fingers curl in field
direction.

(c) Circular Loop of Wire:

 Field lines are circular, but stronger and denser at the center of the loop.

(d) Solenoid:

 Resembles field of a bar magnet.

 Strong and uniform field inside; weak and divergent outside.
 Polarity depends on direction of current.

RIGHT-HAND RULES
(i) Right-Hand Grip Rule (Straight Wire):

 Thumb: Direction of current

 Fingers: Direction of magnetic field (circular)

(ii) Right-Hand Solenoid Rule:

 Fingers curl in current direction

 Thumb points toward magnetic North pole

55
MAGNETIC FLUX AND FLUX DENSITY
(i) Magnetic Flux (Φ): This is the total number of magnetic field lines passing through a surface.

Φ= B.A.���θ
Where:

 Φ = magnetic flux (Wb)

 B = magnetic flux density (T)
 A = area (m²)
 θ = angle between B and A

(ii) Magnetic Flux Density (B):

 Magnetic flux per unit area.

Φ
B = A.���θ

SI Unit: Tesla (T) = Wb/m²

FORCE ON CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

When a conductor carrying current is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force. This is
the motor effect, and it is the working principle behind electric motors.

Formula (Lorentz Force):

F = BILsinθ

Where:

 F = force (N)
 B = magnetic field strength (T)
 I = current (A)
 L = length of conductor (m)
 θ = angle between conductor and field

56
Direction of Force:

 Determined using Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule:

o First Finger: Field (B)
o Second Finger: Current (I)
o Thumb: Force (Motion)

MAGNETIC FIELD OF A CIRCULAR LOOP

The magnetic field at the center of a single circular coil carrying current is given by:

B = μ0I2R

For a coil with N turns: B = μ0NI2R

Where:

 μ​ = Permeability of free space (4π×10−7 T.)

 R= radius of the coil

INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

 A changing electric current produces a magnetic field.
 A changing magnetic field can induce an electric current (Electromagnetic Induction).
 This relationship is central to electromechanical devices such as generators, motors,
transformers.

WORK EXAMPLES

Example 1:
A wire of length 10cm carrying a current of 4.0A is placed between the poles of a powerful
electromagnetic flux density 2.0T. Calculate the force on the wire when it makes an angle 60o
with the field.
Solution
From the parameters given:
F = BILsinθ = 2 x 4 x 0.1sin60o = 0.8 x 0.8660 = 0.6928 = 0.69N

57
Example 2:
A wire of length 10cm carrying a current of 4.0A is placed between the poles of a powerful
electromagnetic flux density 2.0T. Calculate the maximum force on the wire
Solution
From the parameters given,
F = BIL = 2 x 4 x 0.1 = 8 x 0.1 = 0.8N

APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETIC FIELDS

1. Electric Motors: Convert electrical energy to mechanical energy.

2. Generators: Convert mechanical energy to electrical energy.
3. Transformers: Step up/down AC voltages via mutual induction.
4. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Used in medical diagnostics.
5. Speakers and Microphones: Sound waves to electric signals and vice versa.
6. Magnetic Levitation (MagLev) Trains: Floating trains using electromagnets.
7. Credit/Debit Cards: Use magnetic stripes to store information.
8. Data Storage Devices: Hard disks and tapes use magnetic coatings.
9. Particle Accelerators: Use magnetic fields to guide charged particles.
10. Compasses: Navigation using Earth’s magnetic field.

EVALUATION
1. Define a magnetic field and magnetic flux density.
2. Draw the magnetic field pattern around a bar magnet and a straight wire.
3. State and explain the right-hand grip rule.
4. A wire of length 0.5 m carries 10 A of current and is placed at 90° to a 0.3 T magnetic
field. Calculate the force on the wire.
5. What are the similarities and differences between a solenoid and a bar magnet?
6. List five practical applications of magnetic fields.
7. How can the strength of an electromagnet be increased?

58
ASSIGNMENT
(a) State five differences between permanent magnets and electromagnets.
(b) Research and describe the construction and working principle of a DC electric motor,
highlighting how magnetic fields play a role.

59
WEEK 3 - ELECTRO-MAGNETIC FIELDS
MEANING OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

An electromagnetic field is a physical field produced by electrically charged objects, consisting

of both electric and magnetic components, which interact with other charged particles.

Definition:

An electromagnetic field is the region of space where both electric and magnetic forces act
simultaneously due to the presence of moving electric charges (such as electric currents).

COMPONENTS OF AN ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

1. Electric Field (E):

o A field produced by stationary electric charges.
o Direction: From positive to negative charges.
o Unit: Volt per meter (V/m)
2. Magnetic Field (B):
o Produced by moving charges (current).
o Direction: Given by the right-hand rule.
o Unit: Tesla (T)

These two fields are mutually perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation
in electromagnetic waves.

ORIGIN OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

(a) From Moving Charges:

 A stationary charge creates only an electric field.

 A moving charge (current) creates both electric and magnetic fields, i.e., an
electromagnetic field.

60
(b) From Accelerated Charges:

 When charges accelerate, they emit electromagnetic radiation (e.g., radio waves, X-
rays).

DYNAMIC NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

According to Maxwell's Equations, a changing electric field produces a magnetic field, and
vice versa.

 This interaction gives rise to self-propagating electromagnetic waves, such as light.

PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

1. Consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields.

2. Fields are perpendicular to each other.
3. Fields propagate together in a direction perpendicular to both electric and magnetic
fields.
4. Travel at the speed of light in vacuum (c = 3×108 m/s)
5. Can exert forces on other charges (via Lorentz force).
6. Can carry energy and momentum (e.g., in radiation pressure).

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE STRUCTURE

 Electric Field (E) oscillates in one plane.

 Magnetic Field (B) oscillates in a perpendicular plane.
 Direction of wave propagation is perpendicular to both E and B.

This structure forms the basis of all forms of electromagnetic radiation: radio, microwave,
infrared, visible light, UV, X-rays, and gamma rays.

REPRESENTATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

(i) Right-Hand Rule for Electromagnetic Wave:

 Thumb: Direction of wave propagation

61
  First finger: Direction of Electric Field (E)
 Second finger (perpendicular): Direction of Magnetic Field (B)

LORENTZ FORCE LAW

The law states that the total force on a moving charge in an electromagnetic field is:

F = q(E+v×B)

Where:

 F = electromagnetic force (N)

 q = charge (C)
 E = electric field (V/m)
 v = velocity of the particle (m/s)
 B = magnetic field (T)

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Discovered by Michael Faraday, it is the production of electromotive force (emf) in a
conductor due to a changing magnetic field.

Faraday’s Law:
Emf = −dtdΦB​ ​

Where:

 ΦB​ = magnetic flux (Wb)

This is the principle behind:

 Electric generators
 Transformers
 Inductors

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ELECTRIC, MAGNETIC, AND ELECTROMAGNETIC
FIELDS
Feature Electric Field Magnetic Field Electromagnetic Field
Source Stationary Moving charge Moving or accelerating charge
charge (current)
Vector quantity Yes Yes Yes
Affects Charges Moving charges Both charges and currents
Produces Static force Circular magnetic Radiation and propagation of
force energy
Unit Volt/meter Tesla (T) N/A (combo of E and B units)
(V/m)
Exists Yes Yes Not independent — E and B
independently? interlinked

EVALUATION QUESTIONS

1. Define an electromagnetic field.

2. Explain how a moving electric charge gives rise to an electromagnetic field.
3. Differentiate between electric field and magnetic field.
4. Describe the direction and structure of an electromagnetic wave.
5. What is the significance of Faraday’s Law in electromagnetic fields?
6. List four practical applications of electromagnetic fields.
7. A wire carries a current of 6 A and is perpendicular to a 0.5 T magnetic field. What is the
force on 2 m of the wire?

ASSIGNMENT

(a) State Maxwell’s equations in words.

(b) Describe how electromagnetic waves are generated and propagate.
(c) Explain the role of electromagnetic fields in mobile phone communication.

63
WEEK 4 - SIMPLE A.C. CIRCUITS

MEANING OF ALTERNATING CURRENT (A.C.)

Alternating Current (A.C.) is an electric current that reverses its direction periodically and
varies continuously with time.

 In contrast to Direct Current (D.C.), which flows in one direction only.

 A.C. typically follows a sinusoidal waveform:

I(t) = I0​ sin(ωt)

Where:

o I0 = peak current
o ω = angular frequency (= 2πf)
o f = frequency (Hz)
o t = time (s)

CHARACTERISTICS OF A.C

 Frequency (f): Number of cycles per second (unit: Hz)

 Amplitude: Maximum value of current or voltage (peak value)
 Period (T): Time taken for one complete cycle (T = 1/f)
 Root Mean Square (RMS) Value: Equivalent steady D.C. value
o For current:

��
Irms = �

o For voltage:

��
Vrms = �

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STEP 3: COMPONENTS OF SIMPLE A.C. CIRCUITS
(i) Resistor (R):

 Voltage and current are in phase.

 Ohm's law applies: V=IR
 (ii) Inductor (L):

 Causes current to lag voltage by 90∘90^\circ90∘.

 Opposition to current is called inductive reactance:

XL​ = 2πfL

Where L = inductance (H), f = frequency (Hz)

(iii) Capacitor (C):

 Causes current to lead voltage by 90o.

 Opposition to current is called capacitive reactance:

1
XC = 2πfC

Where C = capacitance (F)

When an a.c vltage of frequency f is applied to a capacitance, c, then

V = IXL

COMBINATION OF R, L, AND C IN A.C. CIRCUITS

(a) R-L Circuit:

65
  Voltage leads current
 Impedance:
Z = √R2+XL2​ ​
Example 1:
An inductor having an inductance of 120 mH and a resistance of 5 Ω is connected across a 220 V,
60 Hz line. Calculate the power loss in the inductor.
Solution
L = 120 mH = 0.12 H; R = 5 Ω; V = 220 V; f = 60 Hz; Ploss = ?

⇒ XL = 2πfL = 2 x π x 60 x 0.12

⇒ XL = 45.239 Ω

Z2 = R2 + XL2

⇒ Z2 = 52 + 45.2392

⇒ Z2 = 25 + 2046.57

⇒ Z2 = 2071.57

⇒ Z = √2071.57

⇒ Z = 45.51 Ω

V = IZ

V 220
⇒ I= =

66
 Z 45.51

⇒ I = 4.83 A

Power Loss in An inductor is given as:

Ploss = I2R (where R Is the resistance of the inductor)

∴ Ploss = 4.832 x 5 = 116.82 W

(a) R-C Circuit:

 Current leads voltage

 Impedance:
Z = R2 + XC2
Example
An alternating source is connected in series to a capacitor of capacitive reactance 103√3 and a
resistor of resistance 103 Ohms. The Impedance of the circuit is...
Solution

Z = √R2 + Xc2
Z = √(103√3 )2 + (103)2
Z = √3(106) + (106)

67
 Z = √(3+1)106
Z = 2 × 103 Ohms
Z = 2000 Ohms

(c) R-L-C Circuit (Series):

 Combination of resistor, inductor, and capacitor
 Net reactance:

X = XL−XC

 Impedance:
Z = R2 + (XL−XC)2

 Phase angle:

�
tanϕ = �​ ​

POWER IN A.C. CIRCUITS

Types of Power:
Type Symbol Formula Unit
Apparent Power S S=Vrms​ Irms​ VA
Real Power (Active) P P=VIcosϕ Watt (W)
Reactive Power Q Q=VIsinϕ VAR
Power Factor – Cosϕ=SP​ Dimensionless

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RESONANCE IN A.C. CIRCUITS

Occurs in an RLC circuit when:

1
XL = XC ⇒ 2πfL = 2πfC

At resonance:
 Impedance is minimum (Z = R)
 Circuit behaves like a pure resistor
 Current is maximum
 Power factor is unity (1)

Resonant Frequency: Resonance frequency in RLC series circuit is the frequencies at which the
total impedance of the circuit is minimum or current in the circuit becomes maximum, or the
capacitive reactance is equal to the inductive reactance or the impedance is equal to resistance of
the resistor.

Diagram illustrating the variation of frequency, f, with resistance R. The capacitive reactance, Xc
and the inductive reactance, XL n RLC series circuit.

1
f0 = 2πLC

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PHASOR DIAGRAMS

 Phasors are rotating vectors representing sinusoidal voltages/currents.

 Used to show the phase relationships in R, L, C, or RLC circuits.
 In:
o Pure R: V and I in phase
o Pure L: V leads I by 90°
o Pure C: I leads V by 90°
o RLC: Use vector addition to determine resultant voltage/current

APPLICATIONS OF A.C. CIRCUITS

1. Electric Power Distribution (NEPA grid)

2. Transformers(work only with A.C.)
3. Electric Motors (Induction motors)
4. Radio and TV Tuners (resonance in RLC circuits)
5. A.C. Circuit Breakers and Relays
6. Household Appliances (fans, fridges)
7. Signal Processing in Electronics

COMMON A.C. CIRCUIT FORMULAS

�
I=�

 Z = R2 + (XL−XC)2
 XL= 2πfL
1
 XC = 2πfC​

 P = VIcosϕ
 Power factor = cosϕ

WORK EXAMPLES:

Example 1:

70
In an electric circuit, an inductor of inductance 0.5 h and resistance 50 Ώ is connected to an
alternating current source of frequency 60 1b. Calculate the impedance of the circuit.

Solution
Inductance, l = 0.5H, Resistance, R = 50Ώ, Frequency, f = 60Hz, impedance , z = ?
Z = √R2 + Xl
Where XL =inductive reactance
XL = 188.66Ώ
Z = √502 + 188.62
Z = √2500+3559.96
Z = √3809.96
A = 195.1Ώ
Z = 195.0Ώ

Example 2:

An inductor of inductance 1.0H is connected in series with a capacitor of capacitance 2.0μF in an

A.C circuit. Calculate the value of frequency that will make the circuit to resonate.
Solution
Given: Inductance, L = 1.0H
Capacitance, C = 2.0μF
Resonance frequency, fo= ?

Recall: fo =
2π√LC

1
∴ Fo =
2 × 3.142√1 × 2 × 10-

71
 6

∴ Fo =
6.282 × √2 × 10-
3

1 1000
Fo = × 103 = = 112.5Hz
8.9 8.9

Example 3:

In a series R-L-C circuit, R = 10 ohm, Xc = 4F and XL = 9 ohm. The impedance of the circuit is

Solution

Diagrammatically, we have

R → Resistance {opposition to the flow of current in a resistor}

XL → Inductive reactance {opposition to the flow of current in an inductor}
XC → Capacitive reactance {opposition to the flow of current in a capacitor}
Z → Impedance {resultant or effective opposition

72
to the flow of current}
If you are interested in the phasor diagram, here is it,
We are going to use (c) to compute Z

∴ z2 = 102 + 52
z2 = 100 + 25
z2 = 125
z = √125 = 5√5 = 11.2 ohm

EVALUATION

1. Define alternating current.

2. List three differences between A.C. and D.C.
3. Explain what is meant by impedance in an A.C. circuit.
4. In an electric circuit, an inductor of inductance 0.5 h and resistance 50 Ώ is connected to
an alternating current source of frequency 60 1b. Calculate the impedance of the circuit
5. What is resonance in an RLC circuit? State the condition for resonance.
6. A 100 μF capacitor is connected to a 50 Hz A.C. supply. Calculate the capacitive
reactance.
7. Describe the significance of the power factor in an A.C. circuit.

ASSIGNMENT

(a) With the aid of a diagram, explain what happens in an A.C. circuit containing a resistor,
inductor, and capacitor in series.
(b) Discuss five real-life applications of resonance in A.C. circuits.

73
WEEK 6 – BATTERY

DEFINITION OF A BATTERY
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy by means of
electrochemical reactions between two electrodes in an electrolyte.

Note:

 A single unit is called a cell.

 A battery is composed of two or more cells connected in series or parallel to provide
greater voltage or current.

TYPES OF BATTERIES
(i) Primary Batteries (Non-rechargeable):

 Used once and discarded.

 Chemical reaction is irreversible.
 Examples:
o Dry cell (Leclanché cell)
o Alkaline cell
o Mercury cell
o Zinc-carbon cell

(ii) Secondary Batteries (Rechargeable):

 Can be recharged and reused.

 Chemical reaction is reversible.
 Examples:
o Lead-acid accumulator
o Nickel-cadmium cell
o Lithium-ion battery
o Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH)

74
STRUCTURE AND WORKING OF A SIMPLE BATTERY

A simple battery (cell) consists of:

 Two electrodes (anode and cathode)

 Electrolyte: a chemical solution that facilitates ion flow
 External circuit: provides a path for electron flow

Working Principle:

1. Electrochemical reaction occurs between electrodes and electrolyte.

2. Electrons are released at the anode and flow through the external circuit to the cathode.
3. This movement produces an electric current.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (e.m.f.) AND TERMINAL VOLTAGE

(i) Electromotive Force (e.m.f.):

The total energy supplied by the battery per unit charge in driving charges through the entire
circuit (external + internal).

Work done (W)​

e.m.f. (E) = Charge (Q)

Unit: Volt (V)

(ii) Terminal Voltage (V):

The actual voltage measured across the battery terminals when it is delivering current.

V = E − IrV

Where:

 V = terminal voltage
 E = e.m.f.
 I = current

75
  r = internal resistance of the battery

INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A BATTERY

 Batteries are not perfect sources of voltage; they have internal resistance (r) due to the
materials inside the cell.
 It causes a voltage drop inside the battery when current flows.
 Greater internal resistance = more energy lost as heat

CONNECTION OF BATTERIES
(i) Series Connection:

 Positive terminal of one cell connected to the negative of the next.

 Total e.m.f. = sum of individual [Link]

Etotal = E1 + E2 + …+ En​

(ii) Parallel Connection:

 All positive terminals connected together, and all negative terminals together.
 Voltage remains the same, but current capacity increases.

ADVANTAGES OF BATTERIES
1. Portable and compact power source
2. Quiet and clean operation
3. Useful in remote or mobile environments
4. Rechargeable types reduce waste
5. Available in various sizes and voltages

LIMITATIONS OF BATTERIES
1. Limited capacity and lifespan
2. Environmental pollution (if improperly disposed)
3. Can leak or explode if mishandled
4. Rechargeable batteries lose capacity over time

76
 5. Internal resistance reduces efficiency

APPLICATIONS OF BATTERIES
1. Flashlights and torches
2. Mobile phones and tablets
3. Laptops and other electronics
4. Automobiles (car batteries)
5. Solar energy storage systems
6. Medical devices (e.g. pacemakers)
7. Remote controls and toys
8. Power banks and uninterruptible power supply (UPS)

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS WHEN HANDLING BATTERIES

1. Avoid mixing old and new batteries
2. Do not short-circuit terminals
3. Keep away from heat and fire
4. Store in a cool, dry place
5. Properly recycle or dispose of dead batteries
6. Handle lead-acid batteries with gloves and eye protection
7. Never attempt to recharge non-rechargeable cells

KEY FORMULAS TO REMEMBER

1. V = E − Ir
�
2. E = ​ �

3. Rtotal (series)​ = R1 ​ + R2​ +…+ Rn​

1 1 1
4. Rtotal (parallel) = � + � ​ +…+ ��
1 1

EVALUATION
1. Define a battery.
2. Differentiate between a primary and a secondary cell.
3. What is the e.m.f. of a battery and how is it different from terminal voltage?

77
 4. A battery of e.m.f. 12 V and internal resistance 0.5 Ω is connected to a 5.5 Ω resistor.
Calculate the current in the circuit and terminal voltage.
5. Why is internal resistance important in battery design?
6. List four safety precautions when using batteries.

ASSIGNMENT
(a) With the aid of a diagram, describe the construction and working of a dry cell (Leclanché
cell).
(b) Research and report on how lithium-ion batteries are used in electric vehicles.
(c) Draw and explain a circuit used to determine the internal resistance of a battery.

78
WEEK 8 - SOLAR COLLECTOR
DEFINITION OF SOLAR COLLECTOR
A solar collector is a device that absorbs solar radiation and converts it into heat energy,
which is then used for heating fluids like water or air.

It is a key component in solar thermal energy systems, as opposed to photovoltaic panels that
convert sunlight into electricity.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A SOLAR COLLECTOR

The basic working principle is based on the conversion of solar radiation (light energy) into
thermal energy (heat).

Process:

1. Absorption of sunlight by a dark surface (absorber plate).

2. Conversion of light energy into heat.
3. Transfer of this heat to a working fluid (air, water, or antifreeze liquid).
4. Heated fluid is then used directly (e.g., water heating) or stored in an insulated tank.

MAIN TYPES OF SOLAR COLLECTORS

(i) Flat-Plate Solar Collector
 Most common type for domestic use.
 Consists of an insulated box with a transparent cover and dark-colored absorber plate.
 Heat is transferred to fluid (usually water) passing through tubes attached to the absorber.

(ii) Evacuated Tube Collector

 Series of parallel glass tubes with vacuum between two layers to reduce heat loss.
 More efficient in colder climates.

(iii) Concentrating (Parabolic) Solar Collector

 Uses mirrors or lenses to focus sunlight onto a small area.

79
  High temperatures achieved; used in industrial or power plant applications.

COMPONENTS OF A FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTOR

1. Transparent Cover (Glazing):

o Allows sunlight in but prevents heat loss.
2. Absorber Plate:
o Painted black to absorb maximum solar energy.
3. Tubes or Channels:
o Fluid (water/antifreeze) flows through these to collect heat.
4. Insulation Layer:
o Prevents heat from escaping from the back and sides.
5. Casing (Enclosure):
o Protective box for durability and support.
6. Storage Tank:
o Stores the heated fluid for use when sunlight is not available.
7. Pump (optional):
o Circulates fluid between collector and storage tank (used in active systems).

COMPARISON: SOLAR COLLECTORS vs SOLAR PANELS

Feature Solar Collector Solar Panel (Photovoltaic)
Converts Sunlight to heat Sunlight to electricity
Output form Hot fluid (water or air) Electric current (DC)
Main application Water/space heating Powering electronics/appliances
Efficiency (typical) ~60–80% (thermal) ~15–25% (electrical)
Storage Thermal tank Batteries (for electricity)

ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR COLLECTORS

1. Renewable energy source

2. Low operating cost after installation
3. Environmentally friendly – no greenhouse gas emission

80
 4. Quiet operation (no moving parts in passive systems)
5. Ideal for rural and off-grid areas
6. Reduces reliance on fossil fuels
7. Simple maintenance and long lifespan

LIMITATIONS OF SOLAR COLLECTORS

1. Dependent on sunlight – less effective on cloudy/rainy days

2. Initial installation cost can be high
3. Space requirement for large collectors
4. Thermal losses during nighttime if storage is poor
5. Not suitable for portable applications
6. May require anti-freeze fluid in cold climates

APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR COLLECTORS

1. Domestic water heating

2. Swimming pool heating
3. Space heating for homes
4. Industrial process heating
5. Solar desalination (purifying seawater)
6. Greenhouse heating in agriculture
7. Cooking using solar cookers (variant design)
8. Solar drying of crops

TYPES OF SOLAR COLLECTOR SYSTEMS

(a) Passive Systems

 Do not use pumps or controllers.

 Water flows by natural circulation (thermosiphon).
 Simple, low cost, and low maintenance.

81
(b) Active Systems

 Use pumps and control systems to circulate fluid.

 More efficient and suitable for larger or multi-storey systems.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR EFFICIENCY

1. Tilt Angle: Should be equal to the local latitude for optimal absorption.
2. Orientation: South-facing (in Northern Hemisphere; North-facing in Southern
Hemisphere)
3. Insulation: Prevents heat losses from the back and sides.
4. Material of absorber: Good thermal conductivity (e.g. copper or aluminum).
5. Color of absorber: Black for maximum radiation absorption.

FORMULAE AND CALCULATIONS (Where applicable)

The thermal power Q collected by a solar collector can be approximated by:
Q=AxSxη
Where:

 Q = Heat energy collected (W)

 A = Area of collector (m²)
 S = Solar insolation (W/m²)
 η = Efficiency (typically 0.6–0.8)

EVALUATION QUESTIONS

1. What is a solar collector?

2. Describe the working principle of a flat-plate solar collector.
3. List and describe three types of solar collectors.
4. Distinguish between solar collector and solar panel.
5. State four advantages and four limitations of solar collectors.
6. What are the main components of a flat-plate solar collector?
7. Calculate the heat collected by a solar panel of area 1.5 m² receiving solar radiation at
800 W/m² with 65% efficiency.

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ASSIGNMENT

(a) With a diagram, explain the structure of a flat-plate solar collector.

(b) Research and describe how solar collectors are used in large-scale applications like solar
water heating systems in hotels.
(c) List five safety or maintenance practices to ensure long life of a solar thermal system.

83
SS2 PHYSICS LESSON NOTES
THIRD TERM

1. Electrical Continuity Testing

2. Electroplating
3. Application of Electromagnetic Field
4. Models of the Atom
5. Midterm examination
6. Nucleus
7. Midterm break
8. Energy Quantization
9. Duality of Matter
10. Energy and Society

84
WEEK 1 - ELECTRICAL CONTINUITY TESTING
DEFINITION OF ELECTRICAL CONTINUITY
Electrical continuity refers to the uninterrupted flow of electric current through a conductive
path or circuit.

 A conductor or component is said to be continuous if it forms a complete, unbroken

path for electrons to flow from one terminal to another.
 A discontinuity (such as a cut wire, broken fuse, or faulty switch) interrupts the circuit,
resulting in zero or no current flow.

Continuity Testing: This is a diagnostic procedure used to verify the presence or absence of a
complete path for current flow within an electrical or electronic circuit.

ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLE BEHIND CONTINUITY TESTING

The concept is based on Ohm’s Law:

V = IR

 In continuity testing, the goal is to determine if resistance RRR is low enough (close to 0
ohms) to allow current to pass.
 A low or zero resistance implies continuity (closed path), while a very high or infinite
resistance implies an open circuit (discontinuity).

In continuity mode, a multimeter sends a small voltage/current across the circuit and detects
whether a return path exists.

TOOLS USED FOR CONTINUITY TESTING

(i) Digital Multimeter:

 Most reliable instrument for testing.

 In continuity mode, it produces a beep if continuity exists.
 Can also be used to measure resistance to determine continuity indirectly.

85
(ii) Analog Multimeter:

 Uses a needle to display low resistance values.

 Absence of deflection means no continuity.

(iii) Continuity Tester:

 A simple handheld tool with a built-in battery and bulb or buzzer.

 Lights up or buzzes when the circuit is complete.

(iv) Test Lamp:

 Basic tool made from a bulb, battery, and two leads.

 Lights up if current flows through the path (i.e., continuity exists).

PROCEDURE FOR CONTINUITY TESTING (USING MULTIMETER)

Safety First:

 Always turn off the power supply to the circuit/device before testing.

Steps:

1. Set the multimeter to continuity mode (or lowest ohm range if not available).
2. Insert the probes into the multimeter (black to COM, red to Ω port).
3. Touch the two probes together to confirm the meter is working (it should beep).
4. Touch the probes to both ends of the component or wire being tested.
5. Observe the reading or listen for the beep.

Interpretation:
Reading/Signal Meaning
0 to <1Ω / beeping sound Continuity (closed path)
>1000Ω / No beep No continuity (open path)
“OL” or “∞” Infinite resistance (broken)

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COMPONENTS THAT CAN BE TESTED FOR CONTINUITY

 Electrical wires (live, neutral, earth)

 Fuses (to check if blown)
 Switches (open/close contact verification)
 Circuit breakers
 Conductive tracks on PCB
 Coils in motors or transformers
 Connectors or terminals

COMMON FAULTS IDENTIFIED THROUGH CONTINUITY TESTING

Fault Type Description
Open Circuit Disconnected wire/component; no current flow
Short Circuit Unintended low-resistance path
Blown Fuse Melted conductor inside fuse interrupts path
Loose Connector Weak contact causing intermittent breaks
Broken Trace Damaged path in PCB or wire internally

APPLICATIONS OF CONTINUITY TESTING

1. Electrical Installation: Verifying wiring connections in homes/offices.
2. Automotive Repair: Checking wiring harnesses, sensors, and ignition paths.
3. Electronics Production: Quality control in circuit boards.
4. Maintenance: Locating faults in old electrical systems.
5. Industrial Control Systems: Ensuring proper signal flow in control panels.
6. Aerospace & Rail Systems: Safety-critical integrity verification.
7. Instrument Calibration: Confirming connections before power-up.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Never perform continuity testing on a powered or live circuit.
2. Ensure capacitors are discharged before testing.
3. Use correct range settings on the multimeter.
4. Inspect probes for damage before use.

87
 5. Handle tools with dry hands and rubber soles.
6. Always label tested wires to avoid confusion.
7. Keep flammables away when testing.

CALCULATIONS AND PHYSICS APPLICATIONS

While continuity testing is primarily qualitative (pass/fail), it may involve resistance
measurements and concepts from Ohm's Law.

Example Problem:
A resistor of resistance 1.5 Ω is tested using a continuity function. If the multimeter shows a
value of 1.5, does this indicate continuity?
Answer: Yes. The resistance is low, so continuity exists.

EVALUATION
Objective Questions (WAEC/NECO Style):
1. Continuity testing is used to:
A. Measure power
B. Detect open circuits ✅
C. Measure voltage
D. Generate electric current
2. A good conductor when tested for continuity shows:
A. High resistance
B. No reading
C. A beep sound ✅
D. Spark

Theory Questions:
1. Define continuity testing and explain how it works.
2. Describe how a test lamp can be used to detect a broken wire.
3. Differentiate between continuity test and resistance measurement.
4. List five components that can be tested for continuity and the interpretation of results.

88
 5. A student tests a switch using a multimeter and hears no sound. What could this imply?
Suggest a remedy.

ASSIGNMENT
(a) Sketch a circuit diagram showing a continuity tester connected to a wire and a battery.
(b) Explain the step-by-step procedure for testing continuity in a car’s headlamp wiring system.
(c) In what ways is continuity testing useful in electronics manufacturing industries?

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WEEK 2 - ELECTROPLATING
DEFINITION OF ELECTROPLATING
Electroplating is the process of depositing a thin layer of one metal onto the surface of another
metal object using electric current and an electrolyte solution. It is a type of electrolysis used
mainly for coating, protection, decoration, or improving conductivity of objects.

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF ELECTROPLATING

 Based on electrolysis, where direct current (DC) passes through an electrolyte solution
containing metal ions.
 The metal to be deposited is connected as the anode, and the object to be coated is the
cathode.
 When electricity flows, positive metal ions from the electrolyte are reduced at the
cathode and form a coating.
 Meanwhile, anode dissolves to replenish metal ions in solution (if it's made of the plating
metal).

COMPONENTS OF AN ELECTROPLATING SYSTEM

Component Description
Power Supply Provides direct current (DC) to drive the reaction
Cathode (-) The object to be plated (e.g., steel spoon)
Anode (+) Metal used for plating (e.g., copper, nickel)
Electrolyte A solution containing ions of the plating metal (e.g., CuSO₄)
Connecting wires To connect the electrodes to the power supply

ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTIONS IN ELECTROPLATING

Example: Electroplating a spoon with copper

 Electrolyte: Copper(II) sulfate solution (CuSO₄)

 Anode: Copper plate
 Cathode: Iron or steel spoon

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At Cathode (-):
Cu2++2e−→Cu(s)

Copper ions are reduced and deposited as metallic copper on the spoon.

At Anode (+):
Cu(s)→Cu2++2e−

Copper from the anode dissolves to replace ions in the solution.

The thickness of the deposited metal depends on current, time, concentration, and
temperature.

GENERAL CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE ELECTROPLATING

 Clean surface of the object to be plated
 Constant DC current supply
 Correct concentration of electrolyte
 Adequate temperature (moderately warm is ideal)
 Proper electrode placement
 Duration long enough for desired thickness

COMMON METALS USED FOR ELECTROPLATING

Plating Metal Reason
Nickel Corrosion resistance and aesthetic shine
Chrome Hardness, corrosion resistance
Gold/Silver Decorative, conductivity (electronics)
Zinc Protects steel from rust (galvanization)
Copper Base layer for other plating or aesthetics

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROPLATING
1. Jewelry coating with gold or silver
2. Automobile parts (bumpers, handles)
3. Cutlery and kitchenware

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 4. Electrical connectors and circuit boards
5. Coins and medals
6. Protective coating on tools and machines
7. Galvanization (zinc-plating of iron to prevent rust)

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTROPLATING
1. Enhances appearance (shiny, decorative)
2. Prevents corrosion and rust
3. Improves electrical conductivity
4. Increases surface hardness and durability
5. Reduces friction in machinery parts
6. Makes cheaper metals appear valuable (e.g., gold-plated items)

DISADVANTAGES / LIMITATIONS OF ELECTROPLATING

1. Costly if precious metals (e.g., gold, silver) are used
2. Toxic chemicals used can harm environment if not properly managed
3. Coated layer may wear off over time
4. Requires controlled conditions for quality results
5. Improper cleaning of surfaces leads to poor adhesion

Electroplating Setup Diagram:

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SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN ELECTROPLATING
1. Use gloves and goggles to handle chemicals.
2. Work in a well-ventilated area.
3. Avoid direct skin contact with electrolyte.
4. Do not allow electrodes to touch inside the beaker.
5. Wash hands and materials after the experiment.
6. Store chemicals safely and label properly.
7. Dispose of used solutions responsibly (do not pour into drains).

EVALUATION
Objective Questions (WAEC/NECO Style):
1. In electroplating, the object to be plated is connected to the:
A. Positive terminal
B. Negative terminal ✅
C. Earth
D. Neutral wire
2. Electroplating involves:
A. Magnetic induction
B. Chemical bonding
C. Electrolysis ✅
D. Radiation transfer

Theory Questions:
1. Define electroplating and explain its working principle.
2. Draw and label a simple electroplating setup.
3. State four uses of electroplating in the industry.
4. What are the reactions at the anode and cathode during copper electroplating?
5. List three factors that influence the quality of electroplating.
6. State two advantages and two disadvantages of electroplating.

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ASSIGNMENT
(a) Research and describe the industrial process of electroplating with chromium for car parts.
(b) Explain how electroplating is used in preventing rust in steel bridges.
(c) Describe an experiment to electroplate an iron nail with zinc. Include materials and procedure.

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WEEK 3 - APPLICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
DEFINITION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD (EMF)
An electromagnetic field (EMF) is a physical field produced by electrically charged objects. It
affects the behavior of charged particles in its vicinity. The field consists of two components:

 Electric field (E-field): Produced by stationary charges. It exerts force on other electric
charges in the field.
 Magnetic field (B-field): Produced by moving charges (current). It exerts force on other
moving charges.
The electromagnetic field is governed by Maxwell’s equations, which describe how electric and
magnetic fields are generated and altered by each other and by charges and currents.

Interaction Between Electric and Magnetic Fields

Electric and magnetic fields are inherently linked. When an electric charge moves (i.e., a current
flows), it produces a magnetic field. Similarly, a changing magnetic field induces an electric
field (as described by Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction).
This interaction forms the basis of electromagnetic waves (e.g., radio waves, light). In an
electromagnetic wave, the electric and magnetic fields oscillate perpendicular to each other and
to the direction of wave propagation.

LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:

Faradays law states that whenever there is a change in the magnetic lines of force (e.m.f) is
induced, the strength which is proportional to the rate of change of the flux linked with the
circuit.

Lenz's law states that the induced e.m.f is in such a direction as to oppose the motion or change
producing it.

COMMON APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Electromagnetic fields are pervasive in modern society. Some common applications include:

95
  Electric Power Transmission: Transformers and high-voltage lines rely on alternating
EMFs to transmit electricity.
 Household Appliances: Devices like microwaves, toasters, and induction cookers use
EMFs for heating or operation.
 Communication Systems: Radio, television, mobile phones, and Wi-Fi depend on
electromagnetic wave propagation.
 Medical Equipment: MRI scanners and diathermy machines use controlled EMFs for
diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.
 Security Systems: Metal detectors, RFID tags, and airport scanners operate using
electromagnetic principles.

WORKING PRINCIPLES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC DEVICES

Eddy currents are loops of electrical current induced between conductors by changing magnetic
field in the conductor. Eddy current flows in closed loops within conductors in planes
perpendicular to the magnetic field. Eddy flows in the form of Eddies , in such a direction so as
to oppose the motion of the conductor in the field.
Mutual Inductance: This is the flow of induced current or voltage in a coil due to an alternating
current in a neigbouring coil.

96
The diagram above illustrates an a.c. generator. When the coil is rotated, e.m.f. is reduced in the
coil.
The purpose of the slip rings is to obtain an alternating voltage.

Electric Motors:
Convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. When current flows through a coil in a
magnetic field, a force (Lorentz force) acts on the coil, causing it to rotate (based on Fleming’s
Left-Hand Rule).

1. Electric Generators:
Convert mechanical energy into electrical energy using electromagnetic induction.
Movement of a conductor (coil) in a magnetic field induces current (based on Fleming’s
Right-Hand Rule).
2. Transformers:
Transfer electrical energy between circuits via mutual induction. They consist of primary
and secondary coils wound around a magnetic core. A changing current in the primary
induces a voltage in the secondary.
3. Loudspeakers:
Convert electrical signals into sound. An alternating current in a coil causes vibration in a
diaphragm attached to the coil, producing sound waves. This relies on the interaction
between the coil and a permanent magnet.
4. Electromagnetic Relays:
Electrically operated switches. A small current activates an electromagnet, which moves
a switch to allow a larger current to flow through another circuit.

TECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

1. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI):
A diagnostic tool in medicine that uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to produce
detailed images of internal body structures. The magnetic field aligns the hydrogen nuclei
in the body, and the radio waves disturb this alignment. The return to equilibrium emits
signals used to construct images.

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 2. Induction Heating:
Uses electromagnetic induction to heat electrically conductive materials (e.g., metals). An
alternating current produces eddy currents in the material, generating heat due to
electrical resistance. It is widely used in metallurgy and cookware (e.g., induction stoves).
3. Wireless Power Transfer:
Transfers electrical energy without wires using oscillating magnetic fields (resonant
inductive coupling). Common in wireless charging of phones, electric toothbrushes, and
even electric vehicles.

SIMPLE DEVICES USING ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

(i) Electromagnetic Relay
 A switch controlled by an electromagnet.
 When current flows, the magnet pulls a contact to close/open a circuit.
(ii) Electric Bell
 Works when an EM field pulls an armature, breaks contact, and allows repeated ringing
action.
(iii) Loudspeaker
 Coil in magnetic field vibrates diaphragm to produce sound in response to EM field
changes.

ADVANTAGES OF USING ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

 Enable contactless control of devices
 Allow wireless communication
 Efficient energy conversion (motors/generators)
 Used in high-speed, non-contact transport systems
 Medical imaging without surgical intrusion

DISADVANTAGES / RISKS OF EM FIELD EXPOSURE

 Strong EM fields can interfere with pacemakers or sensitive electronics
 Prolonged exposure to high-intensity EM radiation (e.g., X-rays) can be harmful
 Electromagnetic interference (EMI) in critical systems (e.g., aircraft)

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  Potential health risks from long-term exposure to high-frequency fields (e.g., phone
towers)
Factors Which Determine The Magnitude Of An Induced Emf In A Coil Are:
- Speed of rotation of the coil
- Cross section area of the coil
- Number of turns in the coil.

EVALUATION (WAEC/NECO PAST QUESTIONS)

1. (WAEC June 2007 Q4)
Explain briefly the principle of operation of an electric motor and state two factors that
determine its direction of rotation.
2. (WAEC June 2015 Q6)
(a) Define electromagnetic induction.
(b) State two applications of electromagnetic induction in everyday life.
3. (NECO 2019 Q8)
Describe how a transformer works and mention two devices that use transformers.
4. (WAEC June 2014 Q9a)
Mention two appliances that use electromagnetic fields and describe their working
principles.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Define electromagnetic field and describe its two components.
2. Explain how electromagnetic fields are utilized in:
a. MRI
b. Induction heating
c. Wireless charging
3. With the aid of diagrams, explain the principle of operation of either a generator or an
electric motor.
4. Discuss two societal concerns related to electromagnetic field exposure and how they are
mitigated.
5. Explain eddy currents.

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WEEK 4 - MODELS OF THE ATOM
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE ATOMIC MODEL
Ancient Ideas (Democritus, ~400 BC)
 Proposed the idea that matter is composed of tiny indivisible particles called "atomos"
(meaning uncuttable).
 Had no experimental evidence—purely philosophical.

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN ATOMIC MODELS

(1) Dalton’s Atomic Model (1803)
Scientist: John Dalton
Nature of the Model: Indivisible solid sphere
Postulates:
1. All matter is composed of indivisible atoms.
2. Atoms of the same element are identical in mass and properties.
3. Atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds.
4. Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms.
Strengths:
 First scientific model supported by experimentation.
 Explains conservation of mass and definite proportions.
Limitations:
 Did not include subatomic particles (electrons, protons, neutrons).

100
  Failed to explain isotopes and chemical bonding.

(2) Thomson’s Model – “Plum Pudding Model” (1897)

Scientist: J.J. Thomson
Experiment: Cathode Ray Tube
Discovery: Electron
Model Description:
 Atom is a positively charged sphere with negatively charged electrons embedded like
“raisins in a pudding”.

Key Observations from CRT Experiment:

 Cathode rays (electrons) are negatively charged particles.
 They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
Strengths:
 Introduced subatomic particles.
 Explained electrical conductivity.
Limitations:
 No central nucleus.
 Could not explain atomic stability.
 No explanation for spectral lines.

(3) Rutherford’s Nuclear Model (1911)

Scientist: Ernest Rutherford
Experiment: Alpha Scattering (Gold Foil) Experiment
Setup: Alpha particles bombarded a thin gold foil.
Observations:
1. Most alpha particles passed through.
2. A few were deflected.
3. Some bounced back.
Conclusions:
 Atom is mostly empty space.

101
  The atom has a small, dense, positively charged nucleus.
 Electrons orbit the nucleus.
Strengths:
 Introduced the nuclear structure of the atom.
 Explained scattering of alpha particles.
Limitations:
 Could not explain why negatively charged electrons don't spiral into the nucleus.
 Could not explain atomic line spectra.

(4) Bohr’s Model (1913)

Scientist: Niels Bohr
Improvement on Rutherford’s model using Quantum Theory
Postulates:
1. Electrons revolve in fixed circular orbits (energy levels or shells).
2. Electrons do not radiate energy while in these orbits.
3. Electrons emit/absorb energy when transitioning between orbits:

Energy Level Formula:

��.�
En = - ��
eV

Where n = principal quantum number

Successes:
 Explained hydrogen atom’s discrete spectral lines.
 Introduced quantization of angular momentum:
��
mvr = ��

Limitations:
 Only accurately explained hydrogen and single-electron systems.
 Could not explain Zeeman and Stark effects.
 Ignored wave-particle duality.

102
(5) Quantum Mechanical Model / Schrödinger Model (1926–Present)
Scientists: Schrödinger, Heisenberg, de Broglie, Dirac
Key Ideas:
 Electrons do not move in fixed orbits, but in probability clouds or orbitals.
 Describes electron behavior using complex mathematical wave functions:
ψ(x,t)
 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:
(It is impossible to know both position and momentum of an electron simultaneously.)
 de Broglie Wavelength:
��
λ= �

Strengths:
 Describes all atoms (including complex multi-electron atoms).
 Foundation for quantum chemistry and particle physics.
Limitations:
 Highly mathematical.

 Difficult to visualize.

COMPARISON TABLE OF ATOMIC MODELS

Model Scientist Description Strengths Limitations
Dalton John Dalton Solid indivisible Explains No subatomic
atom conservation of structure
mass
Thomson J.J. Thomson Electrons in positive Introduced electrons No nucleus

103
 sphere
Rutherford Ernest Dense nucleus with Discovery of Could not explain
Rutherford orbiting electrons nucleus electron stability
Bohr Niels Bohr Quantized circular Explained hydrogen Inaccurate for
orbits spectra complex atoms
Quantum Schrödinger Electron clouds and Most accurate, Highly
et al probability orbitals includes wave mathematical
nature

APPLICATIONS OF ATOMIC MODELS

1. Chemistry: Understanding molecular bonding and reactions.
2. Spectroscopy: Explanation of atomic spectra, emission and absorption lines.
3. Electronics: Semiconductor design and operation.
4. Medical Imaging: MRI, PET scans rely on atomic structure.
5. Nuclear Physics: Nuclear fission, fusion, atomic energy.
6. Quantum Computing: Based on manipulation of electron states.
7. Laser Technology: Based on electron energy level transitions.

EVALUATION
Objective Questions (Multiple Choice)
1. Which model introduced the concept of quantized electron orbits?
A. Dalton’s Model
B. Bohr’s Model ✅
C. Rutherford’s Model
D. Thomson’s Model
2. The discovery of the electron led to which atomic model?
A. Plum pudding ✅
B. Nuclear model
C. Planetary model
D. Quantum model

104
 3. Which model introduced the idea of orbitals and probability clouds?
A. Bohr’s
B. Dalton’s
C. Quantum Mechanical ✅
D. Rutherford’s
Theory Questions
1. List and explain four postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory.
2. Describe Rutherford’s gold foil experiment and state two of its conclusions.
3. Outline three limitations of Bohr’s atomic model.
4. Compare Bohr’s model with Schrödinger’s quantum mechanical model.
5. Explain how atomic models helped in the development of X-ray and spectroscopy.

ASSIGNMENT
(a) Draw and label diagrams for:
 Bohr’s hydrogen atom
 Schrödinger’s s and p orbital
 Rutherford’s gold foil setup
(b) State how the concept of electron orbitals has influenced modern computer chip technology.
(c) Research the contribution of Heisenberg and how uncertainty plays a role in quantum
mechanics.

105
WEEK 6 - NUCLEUS
DEFINITION OF NUCLEUS
The nucleus is the small, dense center of an atom where most of the atom’s mass is concentrated.
It was discovered through the gold foil experiment conducted by Ernest Rutherford in 1911. The
nucleus is positively charged and occupies only a tiny fraction of the volume of the atom but
contains nearly all its mass.

CONSTITUENTS OF THE NUCLEUS

The nucleus is made up of two fundamental subatomic particles:
1. Protons
o Positively charged particles.
o Each proton carries a charge of +1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C.
o The number of protons determines the element and is called the proton number
or atomic number (Z).
2. Neutrons
o Electrically neutral particles.
o Similar mass to protons but no charge.
o Neutrons contribute to the mass of the atom and influence nuclear stability.
Together, protons and neutrons are called nucleons.

NUCLEON NUMBER, PROTON NUMBER, ISOTOPES, AND NUCLIDES

1. Nucleon Number (Mass Number, A):

o Total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
o A=Z+N
Where:
 A = Nucleon number
 Z = Number of protons (proton number)
 N = Number of neutrons
2. Proton Number (Z):
o Number of protons in the nucleus.
o Defines the chemical identity of an atom (e.g., hydrogen has Z = 1).

106
 3. Isotopes:
o Atoms of the same element (same proton number) but different nucleon numbers.
o Example:
 Hydrogen isotopes:
 Protium (¹H), Deuterium (²H), Tritium (³H)
4. Nuclides:
o A nuclide is a specific isotope of an element characterized by its proton and
neutron numbers.
o Represented as:
AX
Z

Example: 614C14represents a carbon nuclide with 6 protons and 8 neutrons.

NUCLEAR PROPERTIES

1. Mass Defect (Δm):

o The difference between the sum of the masses of individual nucleons and the
actual mass of the nucleus.
o Indicates that some mass has been converted into energy that binds the nucleons
together.
2. Binding Energy (BE):
o The energy required to split a nucleus into its individual protons and neutrons.
o It reflects the stability of the nucleus.
o Calculated using Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence:

E = Δm∙c2

Where:

 E = Binding energy (in joules or MeV)

 Δm = Mass defect (in kg or u)
 c = Speed of light (3 × 10⁸ m/s)
3. Nuclear Stability:
o Stable nuclei have a balanced ratio of protons to neutrons.

107
 o Too many or too few neutrons can lead to radioactive decay.

4. 'half life': The half life of a substance is defined as the time taken for half of the atoms in
any given substance to decay

0.692
�=
�
T = half life
⋋ = decay constant

NUCLEAR FISSION AND FUSION

Nuclear Fission: This is a process in which a nuclear bombardment of the nucleus of a heavy
nuclide by particles such as a neutrons, resulting in splitting of the nucleus into two smaller
nuclei with the release of large amount of energy.
Example:
23592U + 10n → 14857La + 8535Br + 310n + Energy Release

o A heavy nucleus (e.g., uranium-235) splits into two lighter nuclei with the release
of a large amount of energy and free neutrons.
o Used in nuclear reactors and atomic bombs.
o Chain reaction can occur if released neutrons initiate further fissions.

Nuclear Fusion:
o Two light nuclei (e.g., hydrogen isotopes) combine to form a heavier nucleus.
o Releases even more energy than fission.
o Occurs naturally in stars, including the sun.
o Requires extremely high temperature and pressure.

COMPONENT OF THE NUCLEAR REACTOR

- nuclear fuels
- nuclear moderator
- control rods
- Reactor coolants

108
 - The turbine
- Cooling towers.

FUNCTION OF NUCLEAR FUELS

- The fuel help to supply the needed energy would power the nuclear reactor .
Function nuclear moderators
- They are used to slow down fast moving neutron which can cause further fission. Examples
include graphite
function of controls rods
- they are used to absorb neutron which can lead to further fission. Examples are boron, cadmium
e.t.c
Function of reactor coolants.
They are used to carry th heat produced by fission to external boiler and turbine where it is
transformed into electricity, examples are liquid sodium, lead e.t.c
Function of turbine
- it transfer to heat from coolant to electricity
Function of cooling towers
-They are used to dump the excess heat that cannot be converted to energy due to the laws of
thermodynamics.

USES AND HAZARDS OF NUCLEAR ENERGY

Applications:

1. Medicine:
o Radiation therapy for cancer treatment.
o Radioisotopes used in diagnostic imaging (e.g., iodine-131 for thyroid imaging).
2. Industry:
o Non-destructive testing of materials using radioactive tracers.
o Sterilization of medical equipment.
3. Power Generation:
o Nuclear reactors generate electricity using controlled fission.

109
 o Example: Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR), Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

Hazards:

 Exposure to high doses of radiation can cause cancer, genetic mutations, and acute
radiation sickness.
 Radioactive waste disposal poses long-term environmental and health risks.
 Nuclear accidents (e.g., Chernobyl, Fukushima) can have catastrophic consequences.

Einstein’s Mass-Energy Equivalence and Binding Energy Calculation

The equation:

E=Δm⋅c2

is used to calculate binding energy when the mass defect is known. Binding energy per nucleon
is an important measure of nuclear stability.

Example 2:
A radioactive isotope of Americium (Am - 241) decays into nucleus of Neptunium (Np - 237)
and an alpha (α) particle as shown in the nuclear equation below.
24195Am → 237CNp + baα
Determine the values of a, b and c.
Solution:
(b) 24195Am → 237cNp +ba∝

Recall that ba∝ = 42He

95Am → 237cNp + 42He

241

(ii)95 = c+2; c = 93
(i) Number of neutrons = 241 - 95 = 146

Example 2:

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If a nucleus has a mass defect Δm=0.0025 u, convert to kg:
Solution
Δm = 0.0025×1.66×10−27 kg = 4.15×10−30 kg
E = 4.15×10−30×(3×108)2 = 3.735×10−13

Alternatively, use 1 u = 931 MeV for direct energy conversion:

E = 0.0025×931= 2.33 MeV

Example 3:
In a nuclear reaction, the mass defect is 2.0 x 10-6 g. Calculate the energy released, given that the
velocity of light is 3.0 x 108 ms-1.
Solution:
E = ?Δm = 2.0 x 10-6 g = 2.0 x 10-9 kg; c = 3 x 108 ms-1
E = Δmc2 = 2.0 x 10-9 x (3 x 108)2 = 2.0 x 10-9 x 9 x 1016 = 18 x 107 J = 1.8 x 108 J

Evaluation (WAEC/NECO Past Questions)

1. (WAEC 2019 Q6): Explain the difference between mass number and atomic number of
an element.
2. (NECO 2021 Q9): State two differences between nuclear fission and fusion.
3. (WAEC 2022 Q3): A helium nucleus has a mass defect of 0.0304 u. Calculate its binding
energy. (1 u = 931 MeV)
4. (WAEC 2018 Q10): Give one medical and one industrial application of nuclear energy.
5. (NECO 2020 Q4): What is an isotope? Give two examples of isotopes of hydrogen.

Assignment
1. Define the following terms: nuclide, isotope, binding energy.
2. Differentiate between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion with one example each.
3. Calculate the binding energy in MeV of a lithium nucleus that has a mass defect of 0.035
u.

111
4. Mention two advantages and two disadvantages of using nuclear energy in power
generation.
5. Give one example each of the use of nuclear radiation in:
o Medicine
o Industry
o Agriculture

112
WEEK 8 - ENERGY QUANTIZATION
INTRODUCTION

In classical physics, energy was thought to vary continuously. However, early 20th-century
discoveries in atomic and quantum physics revealed that energy, especially at the atomic and
subatomic levels, exists in discrete packets, not continuous forms. This led to the concept of
energy quantization, a fundamental idea in quantum physics that radically transformed our
understanding of atomic structure and electromagnetic radiation.

DEFINITION OF ENERGY QUANTIZATION

Energy quantization refers to the concept that energy levels of electrons in an atom are not
continuous, but rather exist in discrete (quantized) energy states. This means that an electron in
an atom can only possess certain specific energy values and not just any arbitrary amount.

These energy states are associated with orbitals or energy levels (shells) around the nucleus. An
electron must absorb or emit a fixed amount of energy, called a quantum, to move from one
energy level to another.

DISCRETE ENERGY LEVELS IN ATOMS

Atoms have a set of fixed energy levels, denoted by quantum numbers (n = 1, 2, 3, …). These
energy levels are like rungs of a ladder — an electron can "stand" on one rung or another, but
cannot exist between rungs.

 Ground state: The lowest energy level (n = 1), where the electron is most stable.
 Excited state: Any energy level higher than the ground state (n = 2, 3, …), where the
electron has gained energy.

Each level corresponds to a specific amount of energy, and the difference between any two
levels represents the energy an electron must absorb or emit during a transition.

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ELECTRON TRANSITIONS AND QUANTA OF ENERGY

Electrons can move between energy levels by either:

 Absorbing energy: Moving to a higher energy level (excitation).

 Emitting energy: Falling to a lower energy level (de-excitation).

The energy exchanged during these transitions is in the form of electromagnetic radiation (like
light), and it is always a discrete quantum of energy, not a continuous flow.

This energy is given by:

ΔE = Ehigher – Elower = hf

Where:

 ΔE = energy absorbed/emitted,
 h = Planck’s constant (6.626×10−34 J
 f = frequency of the absorbed/emitted radiation.

PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS AND DERIVATION OF E = hf

In 1900, Max Planck introduced the idea that electromagnetic energy is quantized. His
hypothesis stated that:

"Energy is emitted or absorbed in discrete units or quanta, and the energy EEE of each quantum
is directly proportional to the frequency fff of radiation."

Mathematically, this is expressed as:

E = hf

Where:

 E = energy of a single quantum of radiation (in joules),

 h = Planck’s constant,

114
  f = frequency of radiation (in hertz, Hz).

This formula marked the beginning of quantum theory, breaking away from classical physics,
which treated energy as continuous.

THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon where electrons are ejected from the surface of a
metal when light of sufficient frequency shines on it.

Experimental Observations:
1. No electrons are emitted unless the light’s frequency is above a threshold frequency
(f0f_0f0​ ), regardless of intensity.
2. The kinetic energy of emitted electrons depends on the frequency of the light, not its
intensity.
3. The number of electrons emitted depends on the intensity (brightness) of the light, if
frequency is above threshold.
4. The emission of electrons is instantaneous when the threshold frequency is reached.

These observations could not be explained by classical wave theory, but were successfully
explained by Einstein using Planck’s quantum hypothesis.

Einstein proposed that light is made up of particles called photons, each carrying energy E=hf.
When a photon strikes an electron, it transfers energy:

hf = ϕ + 1/2mv2
Where:

 ϕ = work function (minimum energy needed to free an electron),

 1/2​ mv2 = kinetic energy of the emitted electron.

This confirmed that energy is quantized, further validating Planck’s idea.

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QUANTIZATION AND SPECTRAL LINES

When electrons in an atom move between energy levels, they emit or absorb specific amounts
of energy. These energy changes correspond to particular frequencies or wavelengths of light.

Each element emits light at specific frequencies, producing a line spectrum (as opposed to a
continuous spectrum). This is known as an atomic emission or absorption spectrum.

For example:

 Hydrogen atom emits visible light at specific lines in the Balmer series, corresponding
to electron transitions to the n=2n = 2n=2 level.

These spectral lines serve as fingerprints of elements, used in chemical analysis and astronomy.

SIGNIFICANCE OF ENERGY QUANTIZATION

 It explains stability of atoms — electrons cannot spiral into the nucleus as they can only
occupy fixed levels.
 It accounts for discrete spectral lines in emission and absorption spectra.
 It supports the understanding of photoelectric effect, blackbody radiation, and atomic
models like Bohr’s model.
 It forms the basis for quantum mechanics, modern electronics, lasers, and
semiconductors.

EVALUATION (WAEC/NECO PAST QUESTIONS)

1. (WAEC 2017, Q7): The energy of a photon is 3.0 × 10⁻¹⁹ J. Calculate the frequency of
the radiation. (h = 6.63 × 10⁻³⁴ Js)
2. (NECO 2015, Q5): Explain why light of frequency below a certain value does not cause
photoemission from a metal surface.
3. (WAEC 2016, Q4): Describe the photoelectric effect and explain how it supports the
quantum theory of light.
4. (WAEC 2014, Q3b): Define the term energy quantization and explain its role in the
emission of line spectra.

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 5. (NECO 2020, Q6): Derive the relationship E=hfE = hfE=hf and state its significance.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Define the following terms:
o a) Energy quantization
o b) Photon
o c) Threshold frequency
o d) Work function
2. An electron in an atom absorbs 4.14 × 10⁻¹⁹ J of energy. Calculate the frequency of the
absorbed radiation. (h = 6.63 × 10⁻³⁴ Js)
3. Discuss how the photoelectric effect cannot be explained by classical physics but
supports quantum theory.
4. Explain why the hydrogen atom emits light of specific wavelengths.
5. Distinguish between continuous spectrum and line spectrum with examples.

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WEEK 9 - DUALITY OF MATTER
INTRODUCTION

In classical physics, matter and energy were treated as distinct entities—matter exhibited
particle-like properties, while energy (e.g., light) displayed wave-like behavior. However,
experiments in the 20th century revealed that both light and matter can exhibit both wave-like
and particle-like properties depending on the context. This fundamental concept, known as
wave-particle duality, forms the bedrock of modern quantum physics.

CONCEPT OF WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT

The wave-particle duality refers to the quantum mechanical concept that every particle or
quantum entity can exhibit both wave and particle characteristics. This idea was first introduced
in the early 20th century through two critical observations:

 Photoelectric Effect (1905): Albert Einstein explained how light, traditionally

considered a wave, could behave like a stream of particles (photons) when it knocks
electrons off a metal surface. This demonstrated the particle nature of light.
 Electron Diffraction (1927): Electrons, usually treated as particles, were found to
produce interference patterns when passed through a crystal lattice or a double-slit
apparatus—behaviors typical of waves. This demonstrated the wave nature of matter.

These discoveries suggested that both light and particles of matter (like electrons, protons,
etc.) can behave as both waves and particles, challenging the classical distinction between the
two.

DE BROGLIE’S HYPOTHESIS AND DE BROGLIE WAVELENGTH

In 1924, Louis de Broglie, a French physicist, extended the wave-particle duality of light to
material particles such as electrons, protons, neutrons, and even larger objects theoretically. He
proposed that every moving particle has a wave associated with it, called the matter wave.

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De Broglie’s Equation:

ℎ
λ = ��

Where:

λ = wavelength of the matter wave (in meters)

h = Planck’s constant (6.626×10−34 Js)

m = mass of the particle (in kg)

v = velocity of the particle (in m/s)

This equation suggests that lighter particles moving at higher velocities exhibit more pronounced
wave-like behavior. For macroscopic objects, the wavelength is so small it is undetectable, but
for microscopic particles like electrons, the wave nature becomes significant and observable.

EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE FOR WAVE NATURE OF PARTICLES

One of the most compelling pieces of evidence for the wave-like nature of particles came from
electron diffraction experiments.

Davisson-Germer Experiment (1927):

 Conducted by Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer.

 Electrons were directed at a nickel crystal.
 The scattered electrons formed a diffraction pattern on a detector—something only waves
do.
 This confirmed that electrons exhibit wave-like behavior, validating de Broglie’s
hypothesis.

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Electron Double-Slit Experiment:

 When electrons are passed through a double slit one at a time, they still produce an
interference pattern on the screen.
 This shows that even individual particles exhibit self-interference, a hallmark of wave
behavior.

These experiments demonstrate that particles such as electrons, under suitable conditions, behave
not just like particles but also like waves.

IMPLICATIONS OF WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY

1. Limits of Classical Physics:

The duality showed that classical physics couldn’t fully describe the behavior of
subatomic particles. It led to the development of quantum mechanics, a new framework
to explain such phenomena.
2. Probability in Quantum Physics:
Since particles behave like waves, their positions and momenta cannot be precisely
predicted. Instead, they are described in terms of probability waves (wave functions).
3. Uncertainty Principle:
Werner Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle emerges naturally from wave-particle duality.
The more precisely we know a particle's momentum, the less precisely we can know its
position, and vice versa.
4. Atomic Structure:
The wave nature of electrons explains why electrons exist in discrete energy levels
around the nucleus and not spiral into it, as classical physics would suggest.

TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS BASED ON WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY

1. Electron Microscope:
Utilizes the wave properties of electrons to resolve structures much smaller than what
light microscopes can detect. Since electrons have much smaller wavelengths than visible
light, they offer higher resolution.

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 2. Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM):
Relies on quantum tunneling of electrons, a direct result of wave-like behavior, to image
surfaces at the atomic level.
3. Quantum Mechanics & Quantum Computing:
The entire field of quantum physics is built upon the principles of wave-particle duality.
Quantum computers leverage the dual nature of particles (qubits) to perform complex
computations more efficiently than classical computers.
4. Particle Accelerators:
Use wave-particle properties to accelerate subatomic particles to high energies and study
their interactions.
5. Semiconductor Physics:
The behavior of electrons in semiconductors, which power all modern electronics, is
described using wave mechanics.

EVALUATION QUESTIONS (WAEC/NECO PAST QUESTIONS)

1. (WAEC June 2015 Q2)

(a) Define wave-particle duality.
(b) State two experimental observations supporting the wave nature of electrons.
2. (WAEC June 2022 Q1)
A particle of mass 9.1×10−31 kg9.1 \times 10^{-31} \, \text{kg}9.1×10−31kg moves
with a speed of 2.0×106 ms−12.0 \times 10^6 \, \text{ms}^{-1}2.0×106ms−1. Calculate
its de Broglie wavelength.
(Take Planck’s constant h=6.63×10−34 Jsh = 6.63 \times 10^{-34} \,
Jsh=6.63×10−34Js)
3. (NECO 2020 Q3)
Explain why the wave nature of a moving car is not observable, but that of an electron is.
4. (WAEC June 2017 Q4)
Describe the significance of de Broglie’s hypothesis in the development of modern
atomic theory.

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ASSIGNMENT

1. Derive the de Broglie equation from the relationship between momentum and
wavelength.
2. State and explain two technological devices that utilize the wave nature of particles.
3. Research and write a short report on how quantum mechanics is applied in modern
computing (Quantum Computing).
4. (WAEC June 2021)
A proton has a mass of 67×10−27kg and is moving with a velocity of 5.0×105ms−1.
Calculate its de Broglie wavelength.
(Use h = 6.63×10−34Js)

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WEEK 10 - ENERGY AND SOCIETY
MEANING AND FORMS OF ENERGY
Definition of Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work or cause change. It is a fundamental physical quantity and is
required in all activities of life, from motion and growth to production and communication.
Energy exists in various forms and can be transformed from one form to another.

FORMS OF ENERGY

1. Kinetic Energy: Energy possessed by a body due to its motion.

KE=1/2mv2 where m is mass and v is velocity.
2. Potential Energy: Energy stored in a body due to its position or configuration.
PE=mgh
where m is mass, g is acceleration due to gravity, and h is height.
3. Thermal Energy: The internal energy of an object due to the random motion of its
particles. It is related to temperature.
4. Electrical Energy: Energy caused by the movement of electric charges (electrons). It
powers electrical devices and systems.
5. Chemical Energy: Energy stored in chemical bonds of substances. It is released during
chemical reactions, such as combustion or metabolism.
6. Nuclear Energy: Energy stored in the nucleus of atoms, released during nuclear fission
or fusion.
7. Sound Energy: Energy carried by sound waves, resulting from vibrations of particles.
8. Radiant or Light Energy: Energy carried by electromagnetic waves, especially visible
light, X-rays, UV rays, etc.

Major Sources of Energy

Energy sources are categorized as:

1. Renewable Sources – Naturally replenished on a human timescale:

 Solar energy – from the sun.

 Wind energy – from moving air.

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  Hydropower – from moving water.
 Biomass – from organic matter.
 Geothermal energy – from Earth's internal heat.
 Tidal energy – from ocean tides.

2. Non-Renewable Sources – Finite and depletable:

 Fossil fuels – coal, petroleum, natural gas.

 Nuclear fuels – uranium and plutonium.

ENERGY USE AND ITS IMPACT ON SOCIETY

1. Social Development:
o Energy powers transportation, lighting, cooking, and communication.
o It supports education, healthcare, and water supply systems.
o Availability of energy enhances quality of life and economic opportunities.
2. Technological Advancement:
o Energy is central to the development of industries, manufacturing, and digital
systems.
o Electrical energy supports AI, robotics, and internet technologies.
3. Health:
o Access to energy ensures clean water, storage of medicines, operation of hospitals.
o However, pollution from fossil fuels can lead to respiratory diseases and cancer.
4. Environment:
o Fossil fuel use leads to air pollution, global warming, and climate change.
o Deforestation for biomass leads to habitat loss and reduced biodiversity.
o Oil spills, acid rain, and radioactive waste also harm the ecosystem.

ENERGY CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABILITY

Energy Conservation means using energy more efficiently and reducing wastage.

Methods Include:

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  Using energy-saving appliances (LEDs, efficient refrigerators).
 Switching off unused devices.
 Insulating buildings to reduce heating/cooling needs.
 Adopting public transport and reducing reliance on personal cars.

Importance of Sustainable Energy Use:

 Reduces environmental degradation.

 Ensures availability of energy for future generations.
 Promotes economic resilience and reduces energy costs.
 Aligns with global climate goals like the Paris Agreement.

Evaluation of Different Energy Sources

Source Advantages Limitations
Solar Clean, renewable, low maintenance Weather dependent, high setup cost
Hydro Renewable, reliable, efficient Ecosystem disruption, expensive
Wind Renewable, zero emissions Noise, aesthetic impact, variable output
Fossil Fuels High energy output, easy transport Pollution, finite, global warming
Nuclear Large energy yield, low emissions Radioactive waste, risk of accidents
Biomass Reduces waste, renewable Air pollution, deforestation risks

Step 7: Global and National Energy Challenges

1. Overdependence on Fossil Fuels:

o Leads to depletion and pollution.
2. Energy Insecurity:
o Many regions lack access to reliable electricity (especially in rural Africa).
3. Climate Change:
o Resulting from greenhouse gas emissions tied to energy use.
4. Geopolitical Conflicts:
o Energy resources can trigger tensions and wars.
5. High Cost of Renewable Transition:

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 o Initial capital for solar, wind, and hydro projects is high.

Practical Solutions

 Investment in Renewable Energy: Government and private sector support for solar,
wind, and hydro projects.
 Public Awareness: Education campaigns on energy efficiency.
 Policy Reforms: Enforce energy standards and encourage green innovation.
 Technology Transfer: Adopt clean technologies from developed nations.
 Diversification: Mix of energy sources to ensure reliability and reduce pressure on any
single source.

Evaluation (WAEC/NECO Past Questions)

1. (WAEC 2019 Q4): State two advantages and two disadvantages of nuclear energy.
2. (NECO 2020 Q5): Define energy and list four different forms of energy.
3. (WAEC 2017 Q2): Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable sources of energy
with two examples each.
4. (WAEC 2018 Q8): Mention three ways by which energy can be conserved in homes and
industries.

Assignment

1. Discuss three ways in which energy use affects the environment.

2. With suitable examples, compare the advantages and disadvantages of hydroelectric
power and fossil fuels.
3. Suggest two realistic ways Nigeria can reduce its reliance on fossil fuels.
4. Identify five everyday practices that promote energy conservation.

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