RESEARCH PROCESS

Day Date Session Time Topic

Monday 10.00 am
Day 1 Session 1 to 11.00 Research: Concepts, meaning, objectives, motivation
21-08-2023 am

Monday 11.10 am
Types of research – descriptive research – conceptual research – theoretical
Day 1 Session 2 to 12.10
21-08-2023 research – applied research – experimental research.
pm

Monday 12.20 pm
Day 1 Session 3 Research process – Criteria for good research – Problems in Indian context
21-08-2023 to 1. 20 pm

Monday 2.00 pm to
Day 1 Session 4 Formulation of Research Task
21-08-2023 3.00 pm

Monday 3.10 pm to
Day 1 Session 5 Literature Review – Importance & Methods – Sources
21-08-2023 4.10 pm

Monday 4.20 pm to
Day 1 Session 6 Quantification of Cause Effect Relations – Discussions
21-08-2023 5.20 pm
 RESEARCH METHODS VS RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
• Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used for
conduction of research. Research methods or techniques.
• Methods for the collection of data
• Techniques which are used for establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns;
• Methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained
 RESEARCH METHODS VS RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
• Research methodology can be looked as the steps that a researcher follows in studying his research
problem along with the logic behind them.
• This involves
• Selection of a suitable method/technique
• Selection of parameters/variables (control and response parameters)
• Selection of suitable tests
• Interpretation of results and logical conclusions

• Thus, research methodology is not only about the research methods but also the logic behind the
methods (in context with the specific research area)
RESEARCH PROCESS
I. FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Research
problem

Already To be
formulated formulated

In case of
continuation of Fundamental Academic
Applied research
research of other research Research
researcher
 FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

• Area of interest

• Initial broad general research topic

• Identifying gaps in research (literature) [to be done after literature review]

• Carrying out the scientific equities

• Formulating a specific research problem

• Understanding the problem thoroughly
• Rephrasing the research problem

• Checking the feasibility (based on fundamentals, availability of resources, literature, etc)

• Setting up the research objectives

 STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVE

• Determines the data which are to be collected,

• The characteristics of the data which are relevant,
• Relations which are to be explored/established,
• The choice of techniques to be used in these explorations
• The expected outcome form of the research
 II. EXTENSIVE LITERATURE SURVEY

• Abstracting and indexing journals

• Published or unpublished bibliographies
• Academic journals,
• Conference proceedings,
• Government reports,
• Books, etc.
• Remembered that one source will lead to another
 III. DEVELOPMENT OF WORKING
HYPOTHESES
• Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences
• Hypothesis provide the focal point for research
• Working hypothesis provide/guide the path for researcher
 IV. RESEARCH DESIGN

• Conceptual structure within which research would be conducted

• Provide the collection of relevant evidence with minimal efforts, time and money.
• There are several research designs, such as,
• Experimental hypothesis testing
• Informal designs (such as before-and-after without control, after-only with control, before-and-after with control) or
• formal designs (such as completely randomized design, randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and
complex factorial designs),
• Non-experimental hypothesis testing.
 TYPES OF VARIABLES

• Dependent and independent variables

• Extraneous variables: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the
dependent variable. e.g. While studying the effect of air conditioning, the environmental conditions are to be
considered. If the effect of extraneous variables are not considered then the research may lead to experimental
error.

• Control: minimizing the effect of extraneous variables

• Confounded relation: when the dependent variables are not free from the effect of extraneous variables the
relationship between dependent variable and extraneous variable is called as confounded relation.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

• Exploratory research studies (Formulation studies)

• Descriptive and diagnostic research studies
• Hypothesis-testing research studies
 EXPLORATORY RESEARCH STUDIES
(FORMULATION STUDIES)
• Discovery of insights
• Flexible
• Broad enough to consider all the possible parameters
• Literature survey
• Experience survey
• Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ for example newton and gravity, steam engine, etc.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

• Principle of Replication
• Principle of Randomization
• Principle of Local Control: extraneous variables, which are the main source of variability, are
varied deliberately so that the experimental errors can be measured (and predictable) and
eliminated.
 IMPORTANT EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

• Informal experimental designs:

• Before-and-after without control design.
• After-only with control design.
• Before-and-after with control design.

• Formal experimental designs:

• Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).
• Randomized block design (R.B. Design).
• Latin square design (L.S. Design).
• Factorial designs.
 BEFORE-AND-AFTER WITHOUT CONTROL
DESIGN
• In such a design a single test group or area is selected and the dependent variable is measured
before the introduction of the treatment. The treatment is then introduced and the dependent
variable is measured again after the treatment has been introduced. The effect of the treatment
would be equal to the level of the phenomenon after the treatment minus the level of the
phenomenon before the treatment.
 AFTER ONLY WITH CONTROL DESIGN

• In this design two groups or areas (test area and control area) are selected and the treatment is
introduced into the test area only. The dependent variable is then measured in both the areas at
the same time. Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value of the dependent variable in
the control area from its value in the test area.
 BEFORE-AND-AFTER WITH CONTROL DESIGN
• In this design two areas are selected and the dependent variable is measured in both the areas for an
identical time-period before the treatment. The treatment is then introduced into the test area only,
and the dependent variable is measured in both for an identical time-period after the introduction of
the treatment. The treatment effect is determined by subtracting the change in the dependent
variable in the control area from the change in the dependent variable in test area.
 COMPLETELY RANDOMIZED DESIGN (C.R.
DESIGN)
• Involves only two principles viz., the principle of replication and the principle of randomization
of experimental designs. It is the simplest possible design and its procedure of analysis is also
easier. The essential characteristic of the design is that subjects are randomly assigned to
experimental treatments (or vice-versa)
 RANDOMIZED BLOCK DESIGN (R.B. DESIGN)

• is an improvement over the C.R. design. In the R.B. design the principle of local control can be
applied along with the other two principles of experimental designs. In the R.B. design, subjects
are first divided into groups, known as blocks, such that within each group the subjects are
relatively homogeneous in respect to some selected variable. The main feature of the R.B. design
is that in this each treatment appears the same number of times in each block. The R.B. design is
analysed by the two-way analysis of variance (two-way ANOVA) technique.
 LATIN SQUARE DESIGN (L.S. DESIGN)

• is an experimental design very frequently used in agricultural research. The conditions under
which agricultural investigations are carried out are different from those in other studies for
nature plays an important role in agriculture.
 FACTORIAL DESIGNS

• Factorial designs are used in experiments where the effects of varying more than one factor are to
be determined. They are specially important in several economic and social phenomena where
usually a large number of factors affect a particular problem.
 DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN

• All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’.
• A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry.
• Census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances.
• Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the universe for our study purposes. The items so
selected constitute what is technically called a sample.
• The way of selecting a sample is known as the sample design.
 IMPORTANT SAMPLE DESIGNS

• Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability

sampling.
• Convenience sampling
• Judgement sampling

• Simple random sampling

• Systematic sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling and area sampling
 V. COLLECTING THE DATA

• Necessary to collect data that are

• appropriate,
• adequate and
• authentic

• Mainly limited due to

• cost,
• time and
• other resources at the disposal of the researchers
 SOURCES FOR COLLECTING THE DATA

• Survey
• By observation
• Through personal interview
• Through telephone interviews
• By mailing of questionnaires
• Through schedules

• Mainly limited due to

• cost,
• time and
• other resources at the disposal of the researchers
 VI. ANALYSIS OF DATA &
HYPOTHESIS-TESTING
• After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them.

• The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as

• establishment of categories,
• the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
• tabulation and
• drawing statistical inferences.

• After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses

• Various tests for hypothesis testing are, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test
VII. GENERALISATIONS AND INTERPRETATION

• If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at
generalisation, i.e., to build a theory.
• As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations.
• If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of
some theory.
• It is known as interpretation.
• The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to
further researches.
 CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH

1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher
to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been
attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate
their effects upon the findings.
 CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH

4. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods
of analysis used should be appropriate.
5. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
 QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH

• Good research is systematic

• Good research is logical
• Good research is empirical
• Good research is replicable
 PROBLEMS IN INDIAN CONTEXT

• The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research

• Insufficient interaction between the university research departments and outside world
(society/business/industry/Govt./community)
• Faith and fear of data leakage by researchers
• Overlapping studies
• Standard code of conduct for researchers
 PROBLEMS IN INDIAN CONTEXT

• Poor and insufficient library services

• Availability of old and new (latest) copies of publications
• Timely availability of published data (government data, etc.)
• difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial assistance