Chapter four

Scramjet engine characteristics

1 Introduction
Scramjet propulsion is a developing technology for supersonic and hypersonic
flight. Scramjet engines use the surrounding air as a working fluid and are known as a
type of air-breathing engine. Air first passes through the inlet/isolator, then mixes with
fuel and is ignited in the combustor. Hot exhaust gases pass through a nozzle and
produce thrust. Scramjets use the forward motion of the vehicle to compress incoming
air at the inlet instead of a rotary compressor as in conventional jet engines. Therefore,
they have fewer moving parts and are much lighter than turbine engines.
In scramjet (supersonic combustion ramjet), the combustion process occurs
supersonically. Therefore, a choking mechanism in the throat is not required to
accelerate the airflow. Since the flow does not slow very much in the combustor,
scramjets are more efficient for hypersonic flights and higher Mach numbers.
Compared to rockets, which must carry their own oxidizer, these air-breathing engines
are more efficient for flight within the atmosphere. As hypersonic craft, scramjets have
different categories: weapons such as cruise missiles; aircraft for global strike and
reconnaissance missions; and space-access vehicles that take off and land like airliners.

Figure 1: Schematic of a scramjet

In Figure 1, a schematic of a scramjet is shown. The forebody provides the first
compression of airflow. Shock waves in the inlet/isolator convert the dynamic pressure
due to the velocity of incoming air into higher static pressure. The shock train can be
seen clearly in Figure 1, where the Mach number reduces while static pressure and
temperature increase along the isolator through shock waves.

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For scramjets, the isolator is a critical component that adjusts the static back-pressure.
At the beginning of combustion, boundary layer separation starts, and a precombustion
shock appears in the isolator. In Figure 2, boundary layer separation and precombustion
shock structure for a scramjet isolator can be observed clearly. Because of the
combustion process, static back-pressure changes in the isolator. The pressure rise can
force the shock waves to be pushed out of the isolator and inlet. This condition is called
inlet unstart, in which enough airflow cannot enter the isolator.

Figure 2: Scramjet components

Specific impulse (Isp) can be used to compare efficiencies between various engine
types and performance levels. In Figure 3, different engine types are shown on a graph
of Specific Impulse versus Mach Number, indicating that hydrogen is more efficient
than hydrocarbon fuel. Also, it is clearly shown that at Mach numbers higher than 6–
7, only rockets and scramjets are available, and scramjets are more advantageous by
having a higher specific impulse than rockets.
At Mach 3–4, a scramjet transitions from low-speed propulsion to a situation in which
the shock system has sufficient strength to create region(s) of subsonic flow at the
entrance to the combustor.

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 Figure 3: Specific Impulse and Mach Number for Various Engine Types
Scramjet modes and properties from Mach 3 to Mach 8 are shown in detail in Figure
4. Isolator pressure ratio peaks at Mach 6, and between Mach 5 and Mach 7, a transition
forms which is a mixture of ramjet and scramjet combustion. The total rise in
temperature and pressure across the combustor begins to decrease, and the
precombustion shock is pulled back from the inlet throat toward the entrance of the
combustor. Beyond Mach 7, the combustion process can no longer separate the airflow,
and the engine operates in scramjet mode without a precombustion shock. The inlet
shocks propagate through the entire engine. Operations at Mach 5–15 bring some
efficiency problems. Supersonic mixing of air and fuel at speeds around and above
Mach 12 is difficult, and rising temperatures by increasing Mach numbers cause
dissociation and ionization in the combustor.
Hypersonic vehicles are subject to several extraordinary challenges both for structure
and materials. These include:
• Very high temperatures
• Heating of the whole vehicle
• Steady-state and transient localized heating from shock waves
• High aerodynamic loads
• High fluctuating pressure loads
• The potential for severe flutter, vibration, fluctuating and thermally induced
stresses
• Erosion from airflow over the vehicle and through the engine

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Figure 4: Ramjet/Scramjet modes change from Mach 3 to Mach 8

Figure 5: Envelopes of different propulsion devices

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2 Description
A scramjet is an air-breathing engine that allows air to enter and exit at
supersonic speeds. It is a direct evolution of the ramjet, with the key difference being
the combustion process occurs while the airflow remains supersonic.
• Ramjet: Subsonic combustion
• Scramjet: Supersonic combustion
Since it has no compressors or turbines, the scramjet depends entirely on the vehicle’s
speed to compress incoming air.

3 Application of the scramjet engine

Hypersonic Cruise Missiles
• High-speed Reconnaissance Aircraft
• Space Launch Systems (first or second stages)
• Experimental Vehicles (e.g., NASA X-43, Boeing X-51)
• Potential Future Hypersonic Passenger Planes

4 Components (As a Particle Through the Engine)

Let’s now imagine ourselves as a particle of air entering a scramjet engine. We
will travel from inlet to nozzle and examine each component:

a) Inlet
At operational scramjet flight conditions typically near Mach 5 the incoming
freestream airflow possesses extremely high dynamic pressure and kinetic energy as it
enters the scramjet inlet refer to Figure 1. The inlets precisely engineered converging
geometry is designed to compress and decelerate this high-speed flow to a lower
supersonic Mach number through a controlled sequence of oblique shock waves before
it transitions into the isolator.
This process constitutes a form of mixed compression, combining both external and
internal compression stages. As a result, no mechanical compressor is required unlike
in conventional gas turbine engines thereby eliminating the need for rotating machinery
within the core flow path. The absence of such components not only simplifies the
fundamental architecture of the scramjet but also removes the cycle temperature
limitations imposed by turbine blade material constraints, enabling operation at higher
maximum temperatures and consequently improving thermodynamic efficiency.

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However, the inlet is also the site of important viscous flow phenomena. high-speed
boundary layers develop on the vehicle forebody under conditions of intense
aerodynamic heating and low-density effects, leading to viscous interactions that can
influence inlet performance. The inlet compression process is therefore a critical
determinant of overall engine operability and performance.
• The air particle enters at Mach 5+.
• The inlet compresses air through oblique shock waves.
• There is no mechanical compression all compression is due to shock-induced
pressure rise and geometry.
• Stagnation pressure loss occurs due to shocks.

b) Isolator
Immediately downstream of the inlet, the airflow passes through a relatively short duct,
terminating just prior to the combustion chamber, known as the isolator, see Figure 1.
This component is a critical element in scramjet engine architecture. During the
combustion process, the release of substantial thermal energy within the combustor
produces significant static pressure increases, often accompanied by boundary-layer
separation along the combustor walls. Such phenomena can induce an adverse pressure
gradient, further compress the incoming flow and pose the risk of upstream pressure-
wave propagation into the inlet.
When the incoming boundary-layer encounters this adverse pressure gradient,
separation may occur, giving rise to a shock train within the isolator. As illustrated in
Figure 6, a shock train constitutes a complex flow pattern comprising a

Figure 6: Shock trine in an isolator

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sequence of oblique waves through which the local Mach number is progressively
reduced and the static pressure elevated. The near-wall separation or shear-layer mixing
region serves to balance the streamwise pressure gradient along the isolator’s length
through the action of viscous shear stresses. The onset of this separation typically
follows the formation of an initial oblique shock that generates a sufficiently large
pressure rise to induce boundary-layer detachment. From a design perspective
particularly in determining the isolator’s length it is imperative to ensure that the first
shock does not propagate upstream into the inlet, as such an event would severely
disrupt inlet compression processes and, in the worst case, lead to inlet unstart,
compromising engine operability.
c) Combustion Chamber
Given the inherent complexity of supersonic combustion phenomena, and considering
that the present discussion does not focus on the detailed chemistry or turbulence flame
interaction mechanisms, only the fundamental operational principles are outlined here
to establish a conceptual framework for understanding scramjet combustion chamber
function. In the design of a scramjet combustor, three fundamental performance
requirements must be satisfied to ensure efficient operation:
1. Effective fuel–air mixing
2. Reliable ignition and sustained flame holding
3. Adaptability to a broad range of flight conditions
As illustrated schematically in Figure 7, the supersonic combustion process in a
scramjet engine begins with the ingestion of hypersonic freestream air, which is
compressed through the inlet system and subsequently passes through the isolator.
These stages collectively decelerate the flow to a more manageable supersonic Mach
number prior to its entry into the combustor.

Figure 7: Supersonic combustion in a scramjet engine

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Within the combustion chamber, a strategically positioned fuel injection strut
introduces gaseous hydrogen directly into the supersonic core flow, initiating rapid
mixing between fuel and air. Once adequate molecular-level mixing is achieved,
combustion is initiated in a localized zone downstream of the injector. This process
inherently produces localized pressure rises and unsteady disturbances, frequently
generating intricate shock patterns or shock trains.
At this stage, the role of the isolator becomes paramount, acting as a buffer to prevent
these combustion-induced pressure disturbances from propagating upstream into the
inlet, where they could disrupt the compression system and potentially cause inlet
unstart. Following combustion, the high-temperature, high-pressure products expand
through the engine’s divergent nozzle, converting thermal energy into directed kinetic
energy and thereby generating thrust.
• The air remains supersonic.
• Fuel (typically hydrogen) is injected and ignited.
• Supersonic combustion is extremely challenging; it must occur in milliseconds.
• The design minimizes thermal choking and boundary layer losses.
d) Exhaust Nozzle
Upon completion of the combustion process, the high-enthalpy flow within the
scramjet undergoes an expansion process in which its substantial thermal and pressure
potential is converted into directed kinetic energy. For hypersonic flight, the degree of
expansion required is considerable, owing to the high-pressure ratios involved.
Consequently, the exhaust nozzle often constitutes a substantial fraction of the vehicle’s
overall length, frequently integrating the lower external surface of the airframe as part
of an external expansion nozzle. Representative configurations are depicted in Figures
8.

Figure 8: Typical nozzle on hypersonic vehicle

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The considerable physical length and distinctive geometry of such nozzles result in
complex aerodynamic effects, including pressure distributions along the afterbody that
generate notable pitch moments and lift forces during the expansion phase. Nozzle
efficiency is influenced by multiple factors, including its geometric profile and the
thermodynamic and chemical state of the flow immediately downstream of
combustion. Losses in propulsive performance can arise from viscous shear and
friction along the nozzle walls, while incomplete combustion or inadequate
recombination of dissociated species may lead to freezing of chemical reactions within
the exhaust stream, further reducing thrust.
Moreover, the potential for multiple propulsion modes or combined-cycle operation in
advanced hypersonic vehicles imposes additional constraints on nozzle design,
demanding a configuration that remains effective over a wide range of operating
conditions and flight regimes. Achieving such an optimum balance represents a
significant engineering challenge in scramjet propulsion system development.

• The high-temperature combustion gases are expanded through the nozzle.

• Converts thermal energy into kinetic energy for thrust generation.
• Exit flow remains supersonic.

5 Temperature–entropy diagram of Scramjet Engines

Scramjet engines operate on the fundamental principles of the Brayton cycle, a
thermodynamic process comprising two isobaric (constant-pressure) transformations
and two adiabatic (no heat exchange) transformations. While the Brayton cycle is
traditionally applied to gas-turbine engines, it is equally relevant to scramjet propulsion
systems. In the context of an idealized scramjet, the adiabatic processes are further
assumed to be isentropic (adiabatic and reversible) thereby simplifying analytical
treatment.

Figure 9

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Figure 9 depicts a simplified schematic of a representative hypersonic vehicle
alongside the corresponding engine station numbers, each of which is associated with
a specific thermodynamic process that may be directly correlated to the Brayton cycle.
It is particularly instructive to illustrate these processes on a temperature–entropy (T–
s) diagram, as shown in Figure 10, in order to visualize the thermodynamic
transformations undergone by the working fluid.

Figure 10: Temperature–entropy diagram of Scramjet Engines.

Station 0 corresponds to the undisturbed freestream airflow. Stations 1 through 3

represent the compression stage, encompassing the inlet (Station 1) and isolator
(Station 2). In practice, the high-Mach-number airflow is decelerated to a lower
supersonic velocity via a succession of oblique shockwaves (as detailed in Section
1.3.1), wherein its kinetic energy is partially converted into internal energy, resulting
in a rise in static pressure. In an idealized analysis (Stations 0 to 3′), this compression
is considered isentropic; however, real-world conditions deviate from this assumption
due to inlet and isolator inefficiencies, as indicated by the entropy rise in Figure 6.
These losses are primarily attributed to viscous effects, boundary-layer growth, and
conductive heat transfer to the walls.
The subsequent phase, from Station 3 to 4 (or 3′ to 4 in the idealized cycle), marks
entry into the combustion chamber. Here, chemical energy is introduced via fuel
combustion, releasing heat at a rate dependent on the fuel type (commonly liquid
hydrogen or JP-4), the fuel to air ratio, and the efficacy of mixing. For both idealized
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and practical analyses, this combustion phase is treated as an isobaric process, since
neglecting friction, Rayleigh losses, and wall heat transfer introduces negligible error
in cycle evaluation.
Stations 4 through 10 (4 to 10′ in the idealized framework) represent the expansion
stage, which occurs within the internal and external nozzle sections. The hot, high-
pressure combustion products are accelerated, transforming internal energy back into
kinetic energy through a diverging nozzle geometry. While this process may be
approximated as isentropic for theoretical purposes, real expansion suffers
performance degradation from viscous dissipation, wall heat transfer, and incomplete
attainment of chemical equilibrium, adding, in some cases, to “freezing” of dissociated
gas species before expansion concludes.
Finally, the transition from Station 10 back to Station 0 (10′ to 0 in the idealized model)
completes the Brayton cycle through an isobaric heat-rejection process. This stage
reflects the thermodynamic disparity between the nozzle exit flow and the ambient
freestream conditions, thereby closing the cycle representation for the scramjet engine.

5.1 Performance analyses

The Breguet range equation,
Breguet range = 𝑉𝐼𝑠𝑝 (𝐿⁄𝐷 )𝑙𝑛(𝑊0 ⁄𝑊𝑓 ) _____________ (1)
where 𝑊0 ⁄𝑊𝑓 is the ratio of the vehicle weights at the beginning and the end of the
cruise segment, 𝑉 is the flight speed, and the 𝑉𝐼𝑠𝑝 term is essentially constant for a
scramjet engine in the domain of a hypersonic flight regime. The vehicle will thus be
required to fly at the best 𝐿⁄𝐷 and the product 𝑉𝐼𝑠𝑝 will have to be maximized. This
parameter depends on the propulsive efficiency, the efficiency of the chemical-to-
thermal-energy conversion in the combustion chamber, and the efficiency of the other
thermodynamic processes in the engine components. Through the analysis of the
scramjet cycle shown in Figure 11.

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 Figure 11: Ideal scramjet cycle.
The nozzle exit velocity is obtained as:
2 ∆𝐻𝑐 ⁄𝐻0
𝑉10 = 𝑉 2 + 2𝐻0 (𝜓 − 1) [𝜂𝑐 𝜂𝑒 ( ) − 1] _____________ (2)
𝜓

where 𝐻0 is the flight enthalpy, ∆𝐻𝑐 is the energy added through chemical reactions,
and 𝜂𝑐 and 𝜂𝑒 are the inlet compression and nozzle expansion thermodynamic
efficiencies, respectively. These two efficiencies are defined as the departure of the
compression and the expansion static enthalpy changes during these processes from
the equivalent adiabatic evolution between the same isobars, i.e.
ℎ3′ −ℎ0 ℎ4 −ℎ10
𝜂𝑐 = , 𝜂𝑒 = _____________ (3)
ℎ3 −ℎ0 ℎ4 −ℎ10′

The parameter 𝜓 in the specific-impulse equation represents the inlet static enthalpy
rise through compression, 𝜓 = ℎ3 ⁄ℎ0 , and is limited by the maximum allowable
compression temperature determined from considerations of dissociation. Thus, the
specific impulse defined as the thrust-to-mass-flow ratio becomes:
𝐹 1
𝐼𝑠𝑝 = = (𝑉10 − 𝑉 )
𝑚̇𝑔 𝑔
𝑉 2 ∆𝐻𝑐 ⁄𝐻0
𝐼𝑠𝑝 = {√1 + (𝛾−1)𝑀2 (𝜓 − 1) [𝜂𝑐 𝜂𝑒 ( ) − 1] − 1} _____________ (4)
𝑔 0 𝜓

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where 𝐻0 ⁄𝑉 2 has been simplified under the assumption that the air behaves as a
thermally perfect gas and the flight Mach number has been emphasized. Notable in this
equation are the compression and the expansion efficiencies. Implicitly, the specific-
impulse equation contains the combustion efficiency defined as:
∆𝐻𝑐 𝐻4 −𝐻3
𝜂𝑏 = = _____________ (5)
𝑓𝐻𝑓 𝑓𝐻𝑓

where 𝑓 is the fuel-to-air mass-flow ratio and 𝐻𝑓 is the fuel-heating capacity through
the term ∆𝐻𝑐 depends on the combustion chamber’s geometry, the thermodynamic
properties of the incoming air and fuel, and the quality of mixing is highlighted.
Component efficiencies compression 𝜂𝑐 , combustion 𝜂𝑏 , and expansion 𝜂𝑒 all
influence the specific impulse, a key factor in trajectory and sizing optimization. While
the specific impulse Equation suggests equal quantitative impact from these
efficiencies, in practice a reduced compression efficiency increases𝑇3, limiting heat
release in the combustor, degrading mixing and combustion performance, and altering
nozzle expansion conditions. Thus, compression efficiency indirectly affects all other
stages of the cycle.
Because of the interdependence between components, thermodynamic cycle analysis
by individual stages yields only qualitative results, much like in Brayton cycle studies.
From a broader perspective, overall engine performance can be assessed using global
parameters such as propulsive efficiency, defined as the fraction of total available
energy converted into useful jet kinetic energy, assuming no change in mass flow
through the engine. The propulsive efficiency becomes
2𝑉0
𝜂𝑝 = _____________ (6)
𝑉10 +𝑉0

This parameter indicates that the maximum propulsive efficiency is obtained when the
nozzle exit-velocity equals the flight velocity, a condition in which, evidently, no
specific impulse is created. The propulsive efficiency is often combined with a thermal
efficiency, 𝜂𝑡ℎ , which is defined as the kinetic energy increment across the entire
engine normalized by the amount of energy contained in the fuel consumed:
2 −𝑉 2 )
1⁄2(𝑉10
𝜂𝑡ℎ = _____________ (7)
𝑓𝐻𝑓

The engine thermal efficiency is similar to the definition of the combustion chamber
efficiency, but it includes all the engine components. Therefore, energy not released in
the combustion chamber because of inefficiencies of the mixing and combustion
processes appears as the engine thermal efficiency.

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6 Inlet analyses
6.1 Pressure Recovery and Kinetic Energy Efficiency
A scramjet inlet relies on both external and internal compression. The design must
balance
• Reducing flow velocity to a level low enough for stable combustion while
avoiding excessive deceleration that limits efficient heat addition.
• Optimizing the thermal compression ratio, which depends on the enthalpy
change across the inlet and accounts for viscous losses, heat transfer, and other
non-ideal effects.
In practice, the inlet captures slightly less than the maximum mass flow to prevent
unstable shock ingestion. The throat is the minimum area, and downstream the diffuser
slows the flow into the isolator and combustor. Shocks and duct geometry together
decelerate the flow, causing viscous and shock-induced energy losses that
progressively reduce stagnation pressure. The pressure recovery
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑃𝑡2.1⁄𝑃𝑡0 _____________ (8)
is a key measure of inlet efficiency. A lower pressure recovery means reduced axial
momentum and poorer overall performance. It is influenced by:

• Flight Mach number

• Engine mass flow requirements
• Back pressure from the combustor
• Angle of attack
Among these, the largest variations come from changes in flight Mach number and
engine mass flow rate.
For a fixed geometry inlet:
• At above design Mach, the inlet overspeed’s, shocks move inside the duct, and
pressure recovery drops sharply.

• At below design Mach, mass flow decreases but pressure recovery may slightly
improve; however, low pressure can cause flow instability.

Above the design Mach number, pressure recovery drops due to stronger shocks and
viscous losses, while below the design Mach it may improve slightly, though this can
cause flow instabilities.
The adiabatic kinetic energy efficiency, which measures the energy lost due to entropy
increase during both external and internal compression under no-heat-exchange
conditions with static pressure equal to the free stream, is defined as:

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 ℎ𝑡0 −ℎ(𝑃0 ,𝑠3 )
𝜂𝐾𝐸𝑎𝑑 = _____________ (9)
ℎ𝑡0 −ℎ0

At hypersonic speeds, heat losses to the surroundings reduce efficiency, giving the
corrected kinetic energy efficiency:

ℎ𝑡3 −ℎ(𝑃0 ,𝑠3 )

𝜂𝐾𝐸 = _____________ (10)
ℎ𝑡0 −ℎ0

Additional efficiency parameters can be used to describe the pressure rise and the
changes in entropy and enthalpy of the airstream. If the thermodynamic properties of
the inlet air are known, these efficiencies can be related, and for a perfect gas, simple
algebraic relationships can connect different efficiency measures, such as linking
kinetic energy efficiency to pressure recovery as:

2 1 (𝛾−1⁄𝛾)
𝜂𝐾𝐸𝑎𝑑 = 1 − (𝛾−1)𝑀2 [( ) ] _____________ (11)
0 𝑃𝑅

6.2 The pressure coefficient 𝑲𝒘𝒑

viscous and shock losses occur only in a certain layer of the inlet airflow causing
that layer to have a different average pressure than the inviscid core flow a global
pressure coefficient can be defined to represent the overall inlet losses in a single term.

𝑃𝑊 −𝑃
𝐾𝑤𝑝 = _____________ (12)
𝑃

Where is W marking the loss-affected layer. The pressure coefficient, averaged over
the inlet, depends on the Mach number, contraction ratio, and ramp angle so:

𝜔(𝑀0 )𝛼(𝑀0 ,𝜃)

𝐾𝑤𝑝 = _____________ (14)
√𝜓

where 𝜔 and 𝛼 are functions of the flight Mach number 𝑀0 and the
compression ramp angle 𝜃, and 𝜓 is the thermal compression ratio. The Mach
number functions 𝜔 and 𝛼 are defined as:
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 𝛾−1 1
𝜔 (𝑀0 ) = ( ) _____________ (15)
𝛾 𝑀02

the hypersonic similarity parameter 𝛼 is defined as:

𝛼 (𝑀0 , 𝜃 ) = √𝑀02 − 1 𝜃 _____________ (16)

and the thermal compression ratio is as defined earlier, 𝜓 = ℎ3 ⁄ℎ1 .

It should be noted that this formulation of the thermal compression ratio

refers to the inlet internal compression only, which can be related directly to
the geometric contraction ratio, 𝐶𝑅 = 𝐴3⁄𝐴𝑐 , as:
′
𝜓 = ℎ3 ⁄ℎ1 = 𝐶𝑅 𝛾 −1
The exponent 𝛾 ′ is a corrected specific heat ratio that accounts
for the entropic changes associated with the pressure coefficient, 𝐾𝑤𝑝 , component,
𝛾 ′ = 𝛾 + (𝛾 − 1) 𝐾𝑤𝑝
Along with the kinetic energy efficiency 𝜂𝐾𝐸 , the pressure recovery 𝑃𝑅 , and
the pressure coefficient 𝐾𝑤𝑝 , knowledge of the heat lost to the surroundings
and wall shear stress leads to a complete set of information that allows the
optimization of the inlet thermodynamic design.

6.3 Inlet Performance: Compression and Contraction Ratio Effects

Hypersonic inlet performance depends on flight conditions and contraction
ratio. Busemann type inlets achieve high pressure recovery at the design point, but
truncation reduces contraction, introduces shocks, and lowers thrust, although the
reduced weight and length can partially compensate for these losses.
Viscous effects and practical considerations such as shock boundary layer interactions,
wall heating, and system integration further decrease performance, especially off-
design.

6.4 Inlet Design Starting Considerations

The Kantrowitz-limit gives the maximum contraction ratio an inlet can have
while still allowing airflow to enter the engine without choking. It assumes a perfect
gas and that shocks in the supersonic inlet may move upstream toward the throat under
back-pressure. The inlet will continue to operate as long as these shocks remain inside
the diffuser. the contraction ratio in the Kantrowitz limit is

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 𝛾+1
𝛾 1 𝛾+1
𝐴2 1 (𝛾+1)𝑀22 𝛾−1 𝛾+1 𝛾−1 1+( 2 )𝑀22 2(𝛾−1)
𝐴𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡
= [
𝑀2 (𝛾−1)𝑀22 +2
] [
2𝛾𝑀22 −(𝛾−1)
] [ 𝛾+1 ] _____________ (17)
2

Further simplifying the inlet operation, if the flow is assumed to remain isentropic throughout
the compression process, the area ratio deriving from continuity provides another limit:
𝛾+1
𝐴0 1 2 𝛾−1 2(𝛾−1)
( )
𝐴𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐
= [
𝑀0 𝛾+1
(1 +
2
𝑀02 )] _____________ (18)

These functions indicate that the contraction ratio, i.e., the inverse of the functions given by
Eqs. (17) and (18), increases with an increasing Mach number. In the isentropic case this
increase is without bounds as the high-pressure ratio across the inlet increases continuously,
in the absence of any loss mechanism, with the flight Mach number. In the Kantrowitz limit,
the allowable contraction reaches a limit that depends on 𝛾:
1 1
𝐴𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 (2𝛾)𝛾−1 (𝛾−1)2
lim
𝐴2
= 𝛾+1 _____________ (19)
𝑀2 →∞
(𝛾+1)2(𝛾−1)

6.5 Isolator Length Desing

The length of the isolator is primarily determined by the pressure rise that must be
achieved between the inlet exit and the combustion chamber entrance. In normalized
parameters, the isolator length can be expressed as:

𝑋 1 𝑔12 (𝑝𝑟−1) 1 𝑝𝑟(𝑓1 −1) 𝛾−1

= × [(𝑓 + 𝑙𝑛 ( )] + 𝑙𝑛 (𝑝𝑟) _____________ (20)
𝐷𝐻 4𝐾 𝛾𝑓1 1 −𝑝𝑟)(𝑓1 −1) 𝑓1 (𝑓1 −𝑝𝑟) 2𝛾

where:
• 4𝐾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
With the constant can be taken as 44.5.
4 × 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
• 𝐷𝐻 =
𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐹1
• 𝑓1 =
𝑝1 𝐴1
, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐹 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡, 𝐴 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑡 “1”

𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒.

• 𝑔1 = 𝑚̇√(𝛾 − 1)𝐻0⁄𝑝1 𝐴1, where 𝐻0 is the stagnation enthalpy at the isolator

entrance.
𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡
• 𝑝𝑟 =
𝑝𝑖𝑛
, 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟.
Page 17 of 19
Equation (20) predicts shock-train length within approximately 20% accuracy
compared to experimental data over a wide range of conditions, including both round
and rectangular ducts, Mach numbers from 1.5 to 5, varying Reynolds numbers, and
different friction coefficients. An alternative correlation, derived from circular duct
experiments, provides:

𝑋 𝜃 1⁄2 1
= × [50 × (𝑝𝑟 − 1) + 170 × (𝑝𝑟 − 1)2 ] _________ (21)
√𝐷 𝑅𝑒 1⁄4 𝑀12 −1

This form highlights the dependence of shock-train length on:

• Reynolds number, the higher Reynolds numbers shorten the shock train because
the boundary layer withstands stronger shocks.
• Boundary-layer thickness, the thicker boundary layers separate more easily
under weaker shocks, producing longer shock trains.
• Entrance Mach number 𝑀1, as Mach number increases, the required
compression rises, producing weaker initial shock angles and thus longer shock
trains.
Experimental studies confirm these trends. Results indicate that a short isolator is more
prone to boundary-layer separation as combustion-induced pressure rise increases,
reducing thrust. In contrast, a longer isolator can accommodate greater pressure rises
before separation occurs, allowing thrust to continue increasing with additional fuel
input. Eventually, however, even long isolators experience significant separation when
the pressure rise becomes excessive.

Example:
A rectangular to circular scramjet isolator feeds a combustor that causes a back pressure
rise across the isolator. At the isolator entrance, the flow properties are the Mach
number is 2, static pressure ratio across the isolator is 4, isolator circular diameter is
0.1 m, boundary layer momentum thickness at the entrance is 6 mm, entrance Reynolds
number is 1 × 105 .
a) Estimate the shock train length.
b) Sensitivity check if higher heat release pushes the required pressure ratio to 8
(all other factors unchanged), recompute 𝑋 and 𝑋⁄𝐷 .
c) Comment briefly on how increasing 𝑅𝑒 or 𝑀1 at fixed 𝑝𝑟 affects 𝑋.

Solution:

𝑋 𝜃 1⁄2 1
a) = × [50 × (𝑝𝑟 − 1) + 170 × (𝑝𝑟 − 1)2 ]
√𝐷 𝑅𝑒 1⁄4 𝑀12 −1

𝑋 (0.006)0.5 1
= = 5 1⁄ 4
× 2
[50(4 − 1) + 170(4 − 1)2]
√0.1 (1 × 10 ) (2) − 1
𝑋 = 0.3 m
𝑋⁄𝐷 = 2.9 m
Page 18 of 19
b) For 𝑝𝑟 = 8 (higher back pressure)
𝑋 = 1.49 m, 𝑋⁄𝐷 = 14.9,
c) Brief discussion
−1
• At fixed 𝑝𝑟, the above equation shows 𝑋 ∝ (𝑅𝑒 1⁄4 , 𝑀12 ) increasing 𝑅𝑒 or
𝑀1 reduces the predicted shock-train length (the boundary layer tolerates
stronger shocks; higher 𝑀1 appears in the denominator).
• At higher 𝑝𝑟 (more combustor back-pressure from added heat release), the
bracket term grows rapidly (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 + 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟 − 1), so 𝑋
increases steeply hence longer isolators are needed to buffer the combustor
from the inlet.

Page 19 of 19