UNIT IV: Application Layer Protocols (12 Marks Theory Answers)

a) Process of Resolving Host Name (DNS Resolution of [Link])

When a user types [Link] into a browser, the computer must find its IP address to
connect to the correct web server. This process is called Domain Name Resolution and it is
handled by the Domain Name System (DNS).
First, the request goes to the local DNS resolver, usually maintained by your Internet Service
Provider (ISP). If it already knows the IP address, it sends it back immediately. If not, it
contacts a Root DNS server, which provides the address of the Top-Level Domain (.com)
server. Then the resolver queries the .com DNS server, which returns the address of the
[Link] DNS server. Finally, this DNS server gives the actual IP address of
[Link]. The browser uses that IP address to contact Google’s web server and
display the webpage.

b) DNS in the Internet (Generic Domain)

The Generic Domain section of the DNS is organized by the type of organization that owns
the domain name. It uses familiar extensions such as .com, .org, .edu, .gov, .net, etc. For
example, [Link] represents a commercial company, [Link]
represents an educational institution, and [Link] represents an international
organization. Generic domains make it easy to identify the nature or purpose of a website.
The management of these domains is done by ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers). Generic domains are used worldwide and are not limited to any
specific country.

c) DNS in the Internet (Country Domain)

The Country Domain is based on two-letter country codes defined by ISO standards. These
domains represent websites related to a specific country. For example, .in stands for India,
.uk for the United Kingdom, .us for the United States, .jp for Japan, and .au for Australia.
Country domains help users identify the geographical location of a website. For example,
[Link] belongs to an Indian organization and [Link] belongs to the United
Kingdom. Each country maintains its own registry that manages domain registrations within
that domain.

d) DNS Resolver
A DNS Resolver is a program or system component responsible for sending DNS queries and
receiving DNS replies. It acts as a bridge between the user’s computer and the DNS servers.
When a domain name is entered, the resolver checks its local cache to see if it already
knows the IP address. If not, it starts contacting different DNS servers (root, top-level, and
authoritative servers) one by one to find the IP address. After getting the correct IP, the
resolver gives it to the user’s browser and also stores it temporarily in the cache to speed up
future lookups.

e) Recursive and Iterative Resolution

In Recursive Resolution, the client sends a query to one DNS server, and that server takes
full responsibility for contacting other DNS servers until the correct IP address is found. It
then returns the final answer to the client.
In Iterative Resolution, the DNS server does not contact other servers on behalf of the
client. Instead, it gives the address of another DNS server for the client to contact next. This
continues until the IP address is found.
In short, recursive resolution is server-based searching, while iterative resolution is client-
based searching. Recursive resolution gives the final answer directly, while iterative gives
hints step by step.

f) What is HTTP and How it Works

HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) is the main protocol used by the World Wide Web for
transferring webpages and other resources. It works on a client-server model where the web
browser is the client and the web server hosts the website. When a user requests a
webpage, the browser sends an HTTP Request message to the server. The server processes
this request and sends back an HTTP Response message containing the requested data such
as HTML files, images, or text. HTTP uses port 80 and is a stateless protocol, meaning each
request is independent. The main types of HTTP requests are GET, POST, PUT, and DELETE.
For secure communication, HTTPS (HTTP Secure) is used, which adds encryption using
SSL/TLS.

g) Working of FTP

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is an application layer protocol used for transferring files
between two computers over a network. FTP works on a client-server model and uses two
separate connections: the control connection and the data connection. The control
connection is used for sending commands and responses, while the data connection is used
for the actual file transfer. FTP uses port 21 for control and port 20 for data.
When a client wants to transfer files, it connects to the FTP server, provides a username and
password, and then uses commands like LIST, GET, and PUT to view or transfer files. FTP
allows uploading, downloading, and managing files on remote servers easily.

h) Email-Based Protocols (SMTP, POP3, IMAP)

Email communication on the internet uses several protocols.

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is used to send emails from a sender’s mail client to a
mail server or between servers. It works on port 25.
POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) is used by clients to retrieve emails from the mail
server. It downloads the emails to the user’s device and usually deletes them from the
server after downloading. It works on port 110.
IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) allows emails to remain stored on the mail server
and synchronizes them across multiple devices. It works on port 143.
Together, SMTP sends the mail, and POP3 or IMAP retrieves it for reading.

i) Remote Login and Working of TELNET

TELNET (Telecommunication Network) is a protocol that allows a user to log into another
computer remotely through the internet as if they were using it locally. TELNET operates on
port 23 and uses a client-server model. When a user starts a TELNET session, they provide
the IP address or domain name of the remote host. After connection, the user is prompted
to enter login credentials. Once logged in, the user can execute commands on the remote
system. TELNET is mainly used by network administrators for configuration and
troubleshooting, but it is not secure since it transmits data in plain text. Secure alternatives
like SSH are now more common.

j) Pretty Good Privacy (PGP)

PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) is a protocol that provides security for email communication. It
ensures confidentiality, authentication, and data integrity using encryption and digital
signatures. When a user sends an email, PGP first encrypts the message using the recipient’s
public key. Only the recipient can decrypt it using their private key. PGP also allows the
sender to add a digital signature using their private key so that the receiver can verify who
sent the message. PGP combines both symmetric and asymmetric encryption for speed and
security. It is widely used for secure messaging and file protection.

k) Definitions
A Web Page is a document written in HTML that is displayed in a web browser. It can contain
text, images, and links.
A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is the address of a web resource used to access it on the
internet, for example, [Link]
An Email Structure consists of two main parts: the header (which includes To, From, Subject)
and the body (which contains the actual message).
FTP Commands are instructions given to an FTP server such as LIST to list files, GET to
download a file, and PUT to upload a file.

l) SMTP vs POP3

Point SMTP POP3

Full Form Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Post Office Protocol version 3

Purpose Used to send emails Used to receive emails

Direction Works from client → server (outgoing) Works from server → client (incoming)

Port Number 25 110

m) Architecture of E-mail System (Four Scenarios)

An email system mainly consists of User Agents, Mail Servers, and Protocols. The four
scenarios are:

1. Sender to Mail Server: The sender uses a user agent (like Outlook or Gmail) to send
an email using SMTP.

2. Mail Server to Mail Server: The sending mail server uses SMTP again to transfer the
mail to the receiver’s mail server.

3. Mail Server to Receiver’s Mailbox: The email is stored in the mailbox of the
receiver’s mail server.

4. Receiver to Mail Server: The receiver uses POP3 or IMAP to retrieve the email from
the mailbox.
Thus, SMTP handles sending, and POP3/IMAP handle receiving.

n) Working Principle of the World Wide Web

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via
the Internet. It allows users to view web pages containing text, images, videos, and links.
When a user enters a web address (URL) into a browser, the browser sends an HTTP request
to the web server that hosts the site. The server processes the request and returns the
required webpage. The browser then displays it to the user. WWW uses browsers, web
servers, HTTP, and HTML as its main components. In simple words, the web connects
information worldwide and makes it accessible with just one click.

📶 UNIT V: Wireless Network Technology

a) Working of Wireless Networks with Components

A wireless network allows devices to communicate without using cables. It uses radio waves
or infrared signals to send data between devices like laptops, mobiles, and routers. The
main components are the Access Point (AP), Wireless Router, Server, and Wireless Devices.
The Access Point acts as a bridge between wired and wireless parts of the network. Devices
send signals to the AP, which forwards data to the router, then to the internet. Wireless
networks are easy to install, flexible, and support mobility.

b)

Feature 3G 4G 5G

Speed Up to 2 Mbps Up to 100 Mbps Up to 10 Gbps

Latency High Low Very Low

Technology WCDMA, HSPA LTE mmWave, IoT

Use Voice + Data HD Video, Gaming Smart Cities, AI, AR/VR

c)

Software Defined Network (SDN) Architecture and Working

Software Defined Networking (SDN) is a modern approach that separates the control plane
(which decides where to send data) from the data plane (which actually forwards the data).
The main goal of SDN is to make networks programmable, flexible, and centrally managed.
It uses an SDN Controller, which acts as the brain of the network. The controller
communicates with routers and switches using protocols like OpenFlow. Network admins
can easily change network configurations using software instead of hardware changes.

d) Network Function Virtualization (NFV) Architecture and Working

Network Function Virtualization (NFV) replaces traditional hardware-based network

functions with software-based virtual machines.
Instead of using separate hardware for routers, firewalls, or load balancers, NFV allows these
functions to run as virtual network functions (VNFs) on shared servers. It makes networks
more flexible, scalable, and cheaper to maintain.

Working:
Each function is created as software that can be started, moved, or stopped easily using
virtualization technology.

e) What is Edge Computing and Edge Networking

Edge Computing is a technology where data is processed closer to the data source, such as
sensors or devices, instead of sending everything to the cloud. This reduces delay, saves
bandwidth, and increases speed.
For example, in a smart car, decisions like braking or obstacle detection happen locally using
edge computing.
Edge Networking, on the other hand, focuses on connecting all edge devices efficiently and
securely to exchange information with each other or with the cloud.

f) Edge Computing Components and RTP/RSTP Protocols

The main components of Edge Computing are:

1. Edge Devices: Sensors, cameras, or IoT devices that collect data.

2. Edge Nodes/Gateways: Small processors near the data source that process or filter
data.

3. Edge Servers: Local servers that perform computing tasks.

4. Cloud: Stores long-term data or performs large-scale analytics.

RTP (Real-time Transport Protocol) is used to deliver audio and video data over networks,
ensuring proper timing for streaming.
RSTP (Real-Time Streaming Protocol) controls the playback of the stream — like play, pause,
or stop. RTP handles the media delivery, while RSTP manages the control commands.

g) Comparisons
Comparison SDN NFV

Focus Control & management Virtualizing network functions

Main Idea Software controls the network Software replaces hardware devices

Functioning Uses controller Uses virtual machines

Advantage Centralized control Low cost, flexible

Comparison Edge Computing Edge Networking

Focus Processing near data source Connecting edge devices

Purpose Faster local decision-making Data transfer and routing

Dependency Needs edge servers Needs network connections

Example Smart car analytics Wi-Fi, 5G links between IoT devices

Comparison RTP RSTP

Full Form Real-time Transport Protocol Real-Time Streaming Protocol

Function Transfers audio/video data Controls streaming sessions

Type Transport protocol Control protocol

Use Live streaming Play, pause, stop functions

UNIT III – Transport Layer Protocol

a) Describe packet format of SCTP.

The SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol) packet consists of a common header and
one or more chunks. The header contains source port, destination port, verification tag, and
checksum fields. The chunks carry control or data information such as initiation,
acknowledgment, data, or shutdown messages. SCTP supports multi-homing and multi-
streaming to improve reliability and performance.

b) Explain TCP segment format.

A TCP segment is a data unit used by the Transmission Control Protocol. It contains several
fields for control and reliability. Important fields are source port, destination port, sequence
number, acknowledgment number, header length, control flags (SYN, ACK, FIN), window size
for flow control, checksum for error detection, and urgent pointer for priority data. These
fields help TCP provide reliable, ordered communication between devices.

c) Explain connection establishment, data transfer, and connection termination phases of

TCP.

Connection Establishment: TCP establishes a connection using a three-step handshake (SYN,

SYN-ACK, ACK).
Data Transfer: After connection, data is sent in segments with sequence numbers and
acknowledgments to ensure reliability. If an error occurs, retransmission happens.
Connection Termination: When communication ends, TCP uses FIN and ACK signals to close
the connection properly from both ends, ensuring all data is received.

d) Explain the TCP connection establishment using a three-way handshake mechanism.

TCP uses a three-way handshake to start communication between client and server:

1. The client sends a SYN message to the server to request a connection.

2. The server replies with a SYN-ACK message to confirm receipt and send its own
request.

3. The client sends an ACK back to confirm.

After these three steps, the connection is successfully established and ready for data
transfer.

e) How flow control, error control, and congestion control are handled by TCP and SCTP
protocols.

Flow Control: Both use a sliding window mechanism to manage how much data can be sent
before acknowledgment.
Error Control: They use checksums, acknowledgment numbers, and retransmissions to
detect and correct errors.
Congestion Control: TCP and SCTP monitor network traffic using algorithms like slow start,
congestion avoidance, and fast recovery to prevent network overload and packet loss.

f) Explain the concept of TCP congestion control mechanism.

TCP controls congestion to avoid network overload. It starts with slow start, where the
transmission rate grows gradually. Then it moves to congestion avoidance, increasing the
rate carefully. If packet loss is detected, fast retransmit and fast recovery help resume
communication without restarting completely. These steps help maintain smooth, efficient
data flow even when the network is busy.

g) Compare TCP and UDP (any eight points).

Point TCP UDP

1 Connection-oriented Connectionless

2 Reliable data transfer Unreliable data transfer

3 Uses acknowledgment (ACK) No acknowledgment

4 Slower due to error checking Faster with low overhead

5 Provides flow control No flow control

6 Ordered data delivery No guarantee of order

7 Used for email, web, file transfer Used for video, games, voice calls

8 Header size is large Header size is small

h) Explain state transition of TCP.

TCP passes through several states during communication.

 CLOSED: No active connection.

 LISTEN: Server waiting for a connection.

 SYN-SENT / SYN-RECEIVED: Connection is being set up.

 ESTABLISHED: Data transfer is ongoing.

 FIN-WAIT / CLOSE-WAIT: One side has requested to end connection.

 TIME-WAIT: Ensures all segments are received before fully closing.

These states ensure smooth connection handling from start to end.

i) Enlist TCP services.

1. Reliable data transfer

2. Connection-oriented communication

3. Error detection and correction

 4. Flow control

5. Congestion control

6. Full duplex (two-way) communication

j) Enlist TCP features.

1. Reliable and ordered data transmission

2. Connection-oriented protocol

3. Flow and congestion control support

4. Error detection with checksum

5. Full duplex communication

k) State any two features of TCP.

1. Ensures reliable, error-free data delivery.

2. Establishes connection before communication.

l) State any two features of SCTP.

1. Supports multi-streaming (parallel data streams).

2. Supports multi-homing (multiple IP addresses per connection).

m) Describe multiple streaming services of SCTP.

SCTP supports multiple streaming, meaning a single connection can carry several
independent streams of messages. Each stream works separately, so if one stream faces
delay or loss, others are not affected. This avoids blocking and improves performance,
especially in multimedia and real-time communication applications like video calls and voice
transmission.