EEE1001

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS

Module 4 – Lecture 3

Dr. Arindam Dutta

Assistant Professor
School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
VIT Bhopal

Email: arindamdutta@[Link]
Cabin: C-509
 Bipolar Junction Transistors
• Transistors are used to amplify electrical signals. The word transistor is the short form of the word “transfer resistor”. The
signal amplification is achieved by transferring the signal from a region of low resistance to a region of high resistance.

• A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) has three layers of semiconductor material. These layers are arranged either in an n–p–n
sequence or in a p–n–p sequence. In an n–p–n transistor, a p-type semiconductor material is sandwiched between two n-
type materials. In a p–n–p transistor, an n-type semiconductor material is sandwiched between two p-type materials. A
transistor, in general, has two p–n junctions connected back to back. The central layer is called the base, one of the outer
layers is called the emitter, and the other is called the collector.

• The basic principle of transistor operation is that a small current in the base region can control a much larger current flow
through the transistor, i.e., from the emitter to the collector. A transistor can be used as current amplification or a voltage
amplification device. Since a transistor combines two junction diodes, it works on the basis of p–n junction theory.

• The symbol for an n–p–n or a p–n–p transistor is the same except for the direction of the arrow head. The arrow head has
to be shown from p terminal to n terminal between the emitter and the base. The emitter of a transistor is heavily doped.
The base is lightly doped while the collector is less heavily doped than the emitter.

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Bipolar Junction Transistors

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 Bipolar Junction Transistors
• BJTs can operate in three regions namely cut-off, active, and saturation regions.

• To operate the transistor in the desired region we have to apply the external DC voltages of correct
polarity and magnitude to the two junctions of the transistor.

Region of operation Base-Emitter Junction Collector-Base Junction Application

Cut-off Reverse biased Reverse biased As an open switch (OFF)
Active Forward biased Reverse biased As an amplifier
Saturation Forward biased Forward biased As a closed switch (ON)

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 Bipolar Junction Transistors
Working of n-p-n transistor: For a transistor to work, it has to be biased by applying external voltage supply with proper
polarity. For operation in the active region, a transistor’s emitter–base junction must be forward biased while the collector base
region reverse biased. The forward bias of the EB junction reduces the width of the depletion region and the barrier voltage
gets reduced. The reverse bias of the CB junction increases the width of the depletion region and the barrier voltage gets
increased.

Since the EB junction is forward biased, electrons form the majority charge carriers and would flow from the emitter to the
base region. Since the base is lightly doped, there will be a smaller number of holes present there. About 2% of the electrons
from the emitter recombine with some holes that are present in base region, while a smaller number of holes are injected from
base to emitter. This requires a continuous supply of holes from the external base terminal, thus generating a small base current.

The reverse bias of the CB junction causes expansion of the depletion layer. The width of the base region is thinner than the
collector region. Therefore, the depletion region will penetrate deep into the base region. The electrons from the emitter region
will arrive near the CB depletion region. Due to large CB bias voltage, electrons will be pulled across the CB junction by the
positive terminal of the collector. The collector thus collects the 98% of the electrons emitted by the emitter.

The quantity of charge carriers crossing the emitter to the base is controlled by the base–emitter bias voltage. Thus, it can be
said that emitter and collector current levels can be controlled by the base–emitter bias voltage. For a silicon transistor,
substantial current will start flowing only when the bias voltage VBE is about 0.7 V and for the germanium transistor VBE is 0.3
V.
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 Bipolar Junction Transistors

To sum up an n-p-n transistor:

(i) The outer layers of n–p–n transistors are called emitter and collector,
respectively, the central layer is called the base.

(ii) The base–emitter junction, EB is forward biased and the collector–

base junction is reverse biased, and VCB is higher than VBE.

(iii) The base section is made very thin and is lightly doped so that
majority of the charge carriers (electrons in n–p–n transistor) can move
from the emitter to the collector.

(iv) Most charge carriers flow from emitter to collector and only a small
percentage flow through the base material.

(v) Variation of base–emitter voltage changes base, emitter, and collector

currents.
 Bipolar Junction Transistors
Working of p-n-p transistor: They work the same way as n–p–n transistors except that in p–n–p transistors the majority
charge carriers are holes. The biasing is same as that of a n–p–n transistor. The emitter-base junction is forward biased and the
collector–base junction is reverse biased. The majority charge carriers from the emitter are the holes.

As the base is thin and lightly doped only a small percentage of holes emanating from the emitter recombine with electrons in
the base region. The rest of the holes, which are nearly 98%, cross the base–collector barrier potential, because they are
attracted by the negative terminal of the base–collector bias voltage. Thus, holes are emitted from the p-type emitter across the
forward-biased emitter–base junction and only a few of them find electrons in the base region to recombine with. Most of the
holes get attracted to the collector side by the reverse-biased collector–base junction.

By varying the forward bias voltage at the base–emitter junction, we can

control the large emitter and collector current through small variations of base
current.

Both n–p–n and p–n–p type of transistors are called bipolar junction
transistors, or simply BJTs because the charge carriers for both types of
transistors are electrons, and holes, although for n–p–n transistors the majority
charge carriers are electrons and for p–n–p transistors the majority charge
carriers are the holes.
 Bipolar Junction Transistors
The ratio of the collector current to the emitter current of a transistor is called emitter to collector current gain (dc) which is
typically between 0.95 and 0.99.

Here, IE = IC + IB

Also, IC = dc IE

So, IB = (1 – dc) IE

As the collector–base junction is reverse biased, a small reverse saturation current flows across the junction due to minority
charge carriers which are very small in number, and can be neglected.

Thus,

βdc is called the base to collector current gain. This is the ratio of IC and IB. The value of βdc
varies from 25 to over 200.
 Bipolar Junction Transistors
Transistor configurations: A transistor has three terminals. For the connection of input and output, one of the transistor
terminals is made common, e.g., the base terminal can be made common to both input and output terminal connections.
Similarly, the emitter or the collector can be connected in common configurations. Thus, we get three types of configurations,
namely (i) common-base configuration; (ii) common-emitter configuration; and (iii) common-collector configuration. These
three types of connections can be made for both n–p–n and p–n–p transistors.
 Bipolar Junction Transistors
Common-emitter transistor characteristics: In this p–n–p transistor, input
voltage is applied between the base and the emitter terminals. The output is
taken from the collector and the emitter terminals.
The input characteristic is drawn between VBE and IB. VCE is kept constant
at a value. By changing VBE, current IB is recorded. The characteristic is Input
characteristic
similar to the characteristic of a forward-biased p–n junction. The value of
IB is very small and is of the order of several microamperes only.
The output characteristics are drawn between IC and VCE keeping IB
constant at different values. For each value of IB, VCE is adjusted in steps
and the values of IC are recorded. The values of IC are plotted against VCE Saturation region
for each value of IB.
For a small change in base current (in μA) there is a large change (in mA) in Active region
collector current and emitter current. The current gain from the base to the
collector can be stated as Output
characteristic

Thus, the transistor can be used as a current-amplification device. The

Cut-off region
voltage gain, AV of the transistor is defined as the ratio of output voltage to
input voltage.
 Bipolar Junction Transistors
n-p-n common-emitter BJT as amplifier: The ac signal which is to be amplified is connected to the base circuit. The output
is taken across a resistance, RL in the collector circuit. The base circuit dc voltage, VBB is such that the base will always remain
positive irrespective of the magnitude of the input ac signal. The voltage, VBE is the summation of dc voltage VBB and the ac
input signal, Vi. The dc voltage, VBB is the bias voltage. The magnitude of VBB must be higher than the maximum value of the
input signal. Then, only the base will always remain positively biased in both half cycles of the input voltage. When the ac
signal is applied, this becomes superimposed on the battery voltage, VBB and the base current IB will flow, which is the sum of
the dc base current and the ac current. It can be observed that IB is always positive.

During the positive half cycle of the input signal, the dc and ac voltages are added up and as such the base current is highly
positive. During the negative half cycle, ac voltage is subtracted from the dc voltage. The net voltage is low but positive. The
base current now will be positive but low. Because of the large variation in the base current there will be a large variation in the
collector current, which will flow through the load resistance. An amplified output voltage is thus available across the load.
The amplified collector ac current is superimposed on the dc current, ICQ which will flow through the collector when the ac
input signal is not applied. It is the current when the base current is IBQ.
 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor – MOSFET
• Field effect transistor (FET) is a voltage operated device having virtually no requirement of any input current. FETs are
used in amplifier and switching circuits.

• MOSFET is a type of FET and is one of the most widely used devices incorporated in integrated circuits (IC).

• It is a three terminal device, the three-terminals are drain, source, and the gate.

• A MOSFET is also known as insulated gate field effect transistor (IGFET) as the gate of the MOSFET is insulated from the
channel between the drain and the source.

• A MOSFET is commercially very popular because the MOS devices are suitable for very large-scale integration (VLSI).

• MOSFET can be n-channel-type or p-channel-type based on the channel formed between the source and the drain.

• MOSFET, either n-channel or p-channel type can further be categorized into

o enhancement MOSFET (EMOSFET), or

o depletion MOSFET (DEMOSFET)

 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor – MOSFET
EMOSFET: In an n-channel EMOSFET two blocks of heavily doped n-type material are diffused into a p-type substrate or a
base (a substrate is a surface or material on which a device is made or developed/grown). The terminals for external connection
are brought out. The whole of the surface is coated with a layer of silicon dioxide. A thin metal plate is placed on the surface of
the silicon dioxide layer wherefrom the gate terminal connection is taken. In fact, the metal plate itself will function as the gate
of the MOSFET. The substrate is a highly resistive material.

No continuous channel exists between the source and the drain. The two n-blocks forming the drain and the source, makes two
p–n junctions with the p-type substrate. When a positive voltage, VDS is applied between the drain and the source terminals, the
p–n junction close to the drain (drain-source) is reverse biased.
 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor – MOSFET
Since one of the p–n junctions is reverse biased between terminals D and S, only a negligible small current will flow between
the drain and the source due to the minority charge carriers. Virtually no continuous channel exists between the drain and the
source with the result that virtually no current flows between the drain and the source without any gate voltage applied.

When a positive voltage, VGS is applied on the gate, the gate voltage will induce a channel by pulling the minority charge
carriers of the p-type substrate towards the gate. If the gate voltage is increased more and more, negatively charged minority
carriers, i.e., the electrons in this case, from the p-type substrate will get collected in the region between the drain and the
source. These electrons cannot cross the SiO2 layer, and hence constitute an n-type-induced channel between the drain and the
source.

A minimum or threshold gate voltage, VGST is required before drain current will flow. The magnitude of the current between
the drain and the source will depend on the gate potential. Thus, the magnitude of drain current can be controlled by changing
the gate voltage. The conductivity of the channel is enhanced due to the gate voltage.

With no gate voltage, the device is non-conducting, i.e., off. When the device is to be switched on, a gate voltage higher than
the threshold voltage has to be applied. This type of MOSFET is therefore suitable for switching operations.
 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor – MOSFET
DEMOSFET: The region between the drain and the source on the top surface of the p-type substrate is called the channel. The
channel is produced by diffusing an n-type impurity material between the drain and source terminals before the insulating SiO2
layer is deposited.

When a positive voltage VDS is applied between the drain and the source, a drain current ID flows with no gate voltage applied,
i.e., when VGS = 0.

A capacitor exists between the metal plate of the gate and the channel having the SiO2 layer as the dielectric between the two
plates. When a negative voltage is applied to the gate, one plate of the capacitor is made negative, the channel being the other
plate will have positive charges induced in it. This will deplete the channel majority charge carriers, i.e., the electrons, and
hence the channel conductivity will decrease. The depletion of the majority charge carriers justifies its name as depletion
MOSFET. The drain current will get reduced if VGS is made more negative.

A depletion MOSFET can also be made to operate in enhancement mode by

applying a positive gate voltage. When a positive voltage is applied to the gate
due to capacitor action, negative charges will get induced in the channel
thereby increasing its conductivity. As a result, drain current will increase.

N-type DEMOSFET
 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor – MOSFET
Static Characteristics: Figure (a) shows the typical drain characteristics of an n-channel EMOSFET. Each characteristic curve
shows the variation of drain current, ID with drain voltage VDS for a fixed gate to source voltage, i.e., VGS. The forward transfer
characteristic (Figure (b)) is the relation between ID and VGS. Figures (c) and (d) show the drain and transfer characteristics for
a DEMOSFET. In the transfer characteristic the two modes of operation of the MOSFET for negative and positive gate voltage,
respectively have been shown. A MOSFET has very high input resistance of the order of 1010 Ω or so. MOSFETs should be
handled very carefully because the very thin layer of SiO2 is susceptible to high voltages and can be easily punctured.

(c) Drain characteristic of an DEMOSFET; (d) transfer characteristic

(a) Typical drain characteristic of an EMOSFET; (b) transfer characteristic

 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor – MOSFET
Applications: MOSFETs are used in switching circuits, as phase shift oscillator, as an amplifier, etc.

The figures below show a capacitor-coupled MOSFET switching circuit. As shown in Fig. (a), no gate voltage is applied to the
device i.e., VGS = 0. The device is off. A positive gate voltage higher than the threshold voltage is required to turn the device
on. Through the voltage divider R1 and R2 as in Fig. (b) a positive voltage when applied, the circuit is switched on. The device
can be set to be on for a desired level of drain current, by determining the VGS from the transfer characteristic provided by the
manufacturer. To make sure that the device gets switched off, the VGS must be brought below the minimum threshold voltage,
i.e., VGST .
 Differences between BJT and MOSFET

Parameter BJT MOSFET

• Three terminals: emitter, base, and • Four terminals: source, drain, gate, and
Terminals
collector substrate
• Either electrons or holes act as charge carriers
• Both electrons and holes act as charge
Charge carriers depending on the type of channel between
carriers
source and drain
Polarity • Bipolar • Unipolar
Controlling quantity • Current controlled • Voltage controlled
Input impedance • Low input impedance • Relatively high input impedance
Power consumption • Consumes more power than MOSFET • Power consumed is less than BJT
• Preferred for low current applications as
• Suitable for high power applications in power
Applications amplifiers, oscillators, and electronic
supplies, etc.
switches