Thinking (Cognition)
● Mental activities involved in knowing, remembering, understanding, communicating, and
solving problems.
● Involves manipulating mental representations: concepts, images, schemas, rules,
strategies.
Concepts
● Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
● Simplify our thinking.
Prototypes
● A mental image or best example of a category.
● We match objects to a prototype to categorize faster.
Prototype Bias
● Categories are judged more easily when an item resembles the prototype.
Problem Solving Strategies
1. Algorithms
● Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution.
● Time-consuming.
● Example: Trying every possible password combination.
2. Heuristics
● Simple thinking shortcuts; faster but more error-prone.
● Example: Narrowing down passwords based on your common choices.
3. Insight
● Sudden realization of a solution; “Aha!” moment.
● Burst of activity in the right temporal lobe.
Obstacles to Problem Solving:
Fixation
● Inability to see a problem from a new perspective.
Two Types
1. Mental Set
○ Tendency to approach a problem using past solutions that worked.
○ “This worked before, so I’ll do it again.”
2. Functional Fixedness
○ Seeing an object only for its usual purpose.
○ Example: Failing to see a coin as a screwdriver.
Judgment & Decision Making
Intuition
● Fast, automatic, effortless feelings or thoughts.
● Can be helpful, but also leads to errors.
Heuristics That Influence Judgments
1. Availability Heuristic
● Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.
● We fear rare events (plane crashes, shark attacks) because they are vivid and
memorable.
2. Representativeness Heuristic
● Judging by how well something fits a prototype.
● Can lead to stereotyping or ignoring base rates.
Overconfidence
● Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
● We think we know more than we do.
● Example: Students believing they studied enough when they didn’t.
Belief Perseverance
● Clinging to initial beliefs even after evidence proves them wrong.
● Hardest bias to eliminate.
● Solution: Consider the opposite viewpoint.
Confirmation Bias
● Tendency to seek information that supports our existing beliefs.
● Ignoring contradictory evidence.
Framing
● The way an issue is presented affects decisions and judgments.
● Example: “10% risk of death” vs. “90% chance of survival.”
Creativity
● Producing new and valuable ideas.
Components
● Expertise
● Imaginative thinking
● Venturesome personality
● Intrinsic motivation
● Creative environment
Two Types of Thought
● Convergent Thinking — narrowing solutions (IQ tests)
● Divergent Thinking — multiple possible solutions (creativity)