CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Water is a fundamental natural resource essential for human survival, economic development,
and ecological sustainability. Rivers, lakes, and streams form the primary sources of
freshwater used for drinking, domestic consumption, agriculture, and industrial activities. In
addition to meeting human needs, freshwater ecosystems support biodiversity, fisheries, and
recreational activities, thereby contributing to both livelihoods and cultural life (UNEP,
2016). However, rapid urbanisation, industrialisation, population growth, and unsustainable
resource use have led to severe degradation of water quality worldwide, making water
pollution one of the most pressing environmental challenges of the present century.

Water pollution occurs when physical, chemical, or biological substances are introduced into
water bodies in quantities that degrade water quality and render it unsafe for intended uses
(WHO, 2017). Polluted water not only affects aquatic ecosystems but also poses serious risks
to human health. Rivers that once served as sources of clean water are increasingly used as
channels for the disposal of untreated sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, and
solid waste. According to the United Nations, more than 80% of the world’s wastewater is
released into the environment without adequate treatment, contaminating freshwater sources
(UNESCO, 2020).

Freshwater bodies play a crucial role in sustaining human life and economic activities. Water
from rivers and lakes is essential for drinking, sanitation, irrigation, industrial processes, and
energy production. These water bodies also support fish populations, forming the basis of
both commercial fisheries and recreational fishing. Clean water availability is therefor
directly linked to food security, public health, and economic stability (World Bank, 2019).
Despite this importance, freshwater resources are under increasing pressure due to pollution
and over-extraction.

Water is often described as a “universal solvent” because of its ability to dissolve a wide
range of substances. While this property makes water extremely useful, it also makes it
highly vulnerable to contamination. Once pollutants enter water bodies, they can easily
spread over large areas and persist for long periods. Domestic sewage, industrial waste,
leakage from storage tanks, marine dumping, radioactive waste, and atmospheric deposition
are among the major sources of water pollution (CPCB, 2022). The discharge of heavy metals
such as lead, mercury, and cadmium into rivers and lakes leads to bioaccumulation in aquatic
organisms, posing serious risks to human and animal health through the food chain.

The health impacts of water pollution are severe and widespread. The most immediate and
serious consequences arise from inadequate sanitation and lack of access to safe drinking
water. The World Health Organization estimates that unsafe water, poor sanitation, and
inadequate hygiene are responsible for nearly 80% of infectious diseases in developing
countries (WHO, 2019). Contaminated water provides a breeding ground for disease-causing
organisms such as Vibrio cholerae, responsible for cholera, and parasites that cause diseases
such as schistosomiasis and giardiasis. Globally, approximately 3.4 million people die each
year due to water-related diseases, with children being the most vulnerable group (UNICEF,
2021).

Water pollution is characterised by the presence of chemical, physical, or biological

contaminants that degrade the quality of a specific water body and restrict its beneficial use.
The level of contamination required to impair a water body varies depending on its type,
geographical location, and intended use, such as drinking, irrigation, or industrial supply
(UNEP, 2018). Water pollutants are commonly classified into several categories, including
inorganic pollutants, organic pollutants, pathogens, thermal pollution, and radioactive
pollutants. Each category affects water quality and ecosystems in different ways.

In recent decades, water pollution has emerged as a global environmental crisis requiring
continuous monitoring and evaluation of water resource management policies. Climate
change has further intensified the problem by altering rainfall patterns, reducing river flows
during dry seasons, and increasing the concentration of pollutants in water bodies (IPCC,
2021). As a result, ensuring water security has become a major challenge for governments
across the world.

In India, water pollution is a persistent environmental and public health issue. Rapid urban
growth, inadequate sewage treatment infrastructure, industrial discharge, and agricultural
runoff have severely degraded the quality of surface and groundwater resources. Despite
legal frameworks such as the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and
constitutional provisions under Article 48A and Article 51A, enforcement remains weak
(CPCB, 2022). Urban rivers are particularly vulnerable, as they receive large volumes of
untreated wastewater from densely populated cities.

The Yamuna River represents one of the most critical examples of urban river pollution in
India. Although it is a major tributary of the Ganga and holds immense cultural and economic
significance, the river has become severely polluted, especially in its Delhi stretch.
Government data and newspaper reports consistently indicate that a major portion of the
pollution load in the Yamuna originates from untreated domestic sewage discharged through
numerous drains in Delhi (CPCB, 2023; The Hindu, 2022). Despite significant government
investment and multiple river-cleaning programmes, the water quality of the Yamuna
continues to remain far below prescribed standards.
Thus, water pollution, as illustrated by the case of the Yamuna River, is not merely an
environmental issue but a complex socio-economic and governance challenge. Addressing
this problem requires an integrated approach involving effective policy implementation,
public participation, technological innovation, and strong institutional accountability.
Understanding the causes, impacts, and limitations of existing interventions is essential for
ensuring sustainable management of water resources.

Global Perspective on Water Pollution

Water pollution is a global environmental problem that affects both developed and
developing nations, posing serious threats to human health, ecosystems, and sustainable
development. Freshwater resources across the world are increasingly contaminated due to
rapid population growth, urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural intensification, and
climate change. Rivers, lakes, groundwater, and coastal waters are under severe pressure as
they receive large quantities of untreated or inadequately treated wastewater. International
organisations, scientific studies, and global monitoring agencies have consistently warned
that water pollution has reached critical levels in many regions of the world (UNEP, 2016).

At the global level, water pollution is closely linked to inadequate wastewater management.
According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), nearly 80% of the world’s wastewater is discharged into the environment
without sufficient treatment, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (UNESCO,
2020). This untreated wastewater contains pathogens, nutrients, toxic chemicals, and organic
matter that degrade water quality and endanger both human and ecological health. Even in
developed countries, emerging pollutants such as pharmaceuticals, microplastics, and
industrial chemicals pose growing challenges to water management systems.

➢ Water Pollution and Human Health:- A Global

Concern

One of the most severe impacts of water pollution is its effect on human health. Unsafe
drinking water, poor sanitation, and inadequate hygiene are among the leading causes of
preventable diseases worldwide. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that
contaminated drinking water contributes to the transmission of diseases such as cholera,
diarrhoea, dysentery, typhoid, and polio (WHO, 2019). These water-borne diseases
disproportionately affect children, the elderly, and populations living in poverty.
Globally, approximately 3.4 million people die each year due to water-related diseases,
with children under the age of five accounting for a significant proportion of these deaths
(UNICEF, 2021). Diarrhoeal diseases alone are responsible for hundreds of thousands of
child deaths annually, largely due to the consumption of polluted water. In many parts of
Africa, Asia, and Latin America, lack of access to safe drinking water remains a major
development challenge.

Water pollution also leads to long-term health effects through exposure to chemical
contaminants. Heavy metals such as arsenic, mercury, cadmium, and lead contaminate
groundwater and surface water in many regions. Chronic exposure to these metals can cause
cancer, neurological disorders, kidney damage, and developmental problems in children
(World Bank, 2019). In countries such as Bangladesh, arsenic contamination of groundwater
has been described as one of the largest mass poisonings in history.

➢ Industrialisation and Chemical Pollution :-

Industrial activities are a major contributor to global water pollution. Industries discharge
wastewater containing heavy metals, acids, dyes, solvents, and toxic organic compounds into
rivers and lakes. Although environmental regulations exist in many countries, enforcement
remains weak, especially in developing economies where economic growth often takes
precedence over environmental protection.

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) reports that industrial pollution has
significantly degraded freshwater ecosystems, particularly in rapidly industrialising regions
of Asia and Africa (UNEP, 2018). In developed countries, although treatment systems are
more advanced, industrial pollution still occurs due to accidental spills, illegal dumping, and
outdated infrastructure. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), have been detected in
rivers and groundwater across Europe and North America.

Chemical pollution is particularly dangerous because many pollutants are non-biodegradable

and accumulate in aquatic organisms. This process of bioaccumulation and biomagnification
allows toxins to move up the food chain, ultimately affecting human health. Fish and shellfish
contaminated with mercury and other toxic substances pose serious risks to consumers
worldwide (WHO, 2017).

➢ Agricultural Runoff and Nutrient Pollution :-

Agricultural activities contribute significantly to global water pollution through runoff
containing fertilisers, pesticides, and animal waste. Excessive use of nitrogen and phosphorus
fertilisers has led to widespread nutrient pollution in rivers, lakes, and coastal waters. When
these nutrients enter water bodies, they stimulate excessive growth of algae, a process known
as eutrophication.

Eutrophication leads to oxygen depletion in water, resulting in fish kills and loss of aquatic
biodiversity. One of the most well-known examples is the hypoxic “dead zone” in the Gulf
of Mexico, caused largely by nutrient runoff from the Mississippi River Basin in the United
States (EPA, 2020). Similar dead zones have been reported in coastal areas around the world,
including the Baltic Sea and parts of East Asia.
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) highlights that agricultural pollution is now
the leading cause of water quality impairment globally (FAO, 2017). Unlike point-source
pollution, agricultural runoff is difficult to control because it originates from diffuse sources
across large areas of land. This makes nutrient pollution one of the most complex challenges
in global water management.

➢ Urbanisation, Sewage, and Water Pollution :-

Rapid urbanisation has intensified water pollution worldwide. Expanding cities generate
enormous volumes of domestic sewage, much of which remains untreated or partially treated.
According to the World Bank, urban wastewater treatment capacity has not kept pace with
population growth, particularly in developing countries (World Bank, 2019).

In many megacities across Asia, Africa, and Latin America, rivers flowing through urban
areas have become severely polluted. Domestic sewage contains pathogens, organic matter,
detergents, and nutrients that degrade water quality and pose serious health risks. Informal
settlements and slums are particularly vulnerable, as they often lack access to sanitation
facilities and safe drinking water.

Newspaper reports and global studies indicate that urban rivers are among the most polluted
water bodies in the world. Rivers such as the Yamuna (India), Citarum (Indonesia), and Pasig
(Philippines) are frequently cited as examples of severe urban river pollution due to untreated
sewage discharge (UNEP, 2016).

➢ Emerging Pollutants and Microplastics :-

In recent years, global concern has grown over emerging pollutants that are not adequately
addressed by conventional wastewater treatment systems. These include pharmaceuticals,
personal care products, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and microplastics. Microplastics
have been detected in rivers, lakes, groundwater, and even drinking water sources across the
world (UNEP, 2021).

These pollutants pose unknown long-term risks to ecosystems and human health. Scientific
evidence suggests that microplastics can absorb toxic chemicals and transport them through
aquatic environments. Although research on health impacts is still evolving, the widespread
presence of microplastics highlights the growing complexity of water pollution challenges.

➢ Climate Change and Water Pollution :-

Climate change has further aggravated water pollution problems globally. Changes in rainfall
patterns, increased frequency of floods and droughts, and rising temperatures affect water
quality in multiple ways. During droughts, reduced river flows lead to higher concentrations
of pollutants. During floods, contaminants from urban and agricultural areas are washed into
water bodies (IPCC, 2021).

Climate change also increases water temperature, which can reduce dissolved oxygen levels
and exacerbate eutrophication. As a result, managing water pollution in the context of climate
change requires adaptive and integrated approaches.
 ➢ Global Policy Responses and Challenges :-
International efforts to address water pollution include agreements such as the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDG 6), which aims to ensure availability and sustainable management
of water and sanitation for all. Despite progress, achieving global water quality targets
remains challenging due to financial constraints, governance gaps, and lack of coordination
among institutions (UN, 2022).

While developed countries have made significant investments in wastewater treatment and
pollution control, developing countries continue to face resource and capacity limitations.
This global inequality in water management reflects broader development disparities.

Water Pollution in India :- Causes and

Sources

Water pollution in India is the result of a complex interaction between rapid socio-economic
development, population growth, urbanisation, industrialisation, agricultural intensification,
and institutional weaknesses. Although India possesses one of the largest networks of rivers
and freshwater resources in the world, the quality of these resources has deteriorated
significantly over the past few decades. The increasing discharge of untreated wastewater
into rivers, lakes, wetlands, and groundwater has exceeded the natural assimilative capacity
of water bodies, resulting in widespread pollution (UNEP, 2018).

Water pollution in India is not caused by a single factor but by multiple interlinked sources
operating simultaneously. Domestic sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, solid
waste disposal, religious and cultural practices, mining activities, groundwater contamination,
and governance failures together contribute to the degradation of water quality. These sources
vary in intensity across regions, but their cumulative impact is severe and long-lasting.
Understanding these causes and sources is essential for designing effective pollution control
strategies and ensuring sustainable water resource management.

➢ Domestic Sewage and Urban Wastewater :-

Domestic sewage is the largest contributor to water pollution in India. Rapid population
growth and urbanisation have led to a sharp increase in wastewater generation, while the
development of sewerage infrastructure and sewage treatment facilities has lagged behind.
According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), India generates more
than 70,000 million litres per day (MLD) of sewage, but treatment capacity exists for only
about one-third of this volume (CPCB, 2022).

In Delhi, over 3,296 million litres per day (MLD) of sewage is generated, but only 1,800
MLD is treated at sewage treatment [Link] untreated portion flows directly into the
Yamuna River via majordrainsmajor
drains like Najafgarh, Barapullah, and Shahdara, resulting in
significant organic and microbial pollution (DPCC, 2022).

Domestic sewage consists of human excreta, organic matter, nutrients, detergents, oils,
pathogens, and suspended solids. When discharged untreated into water bodies, it
significantly increases Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD), leading to depletion of dissolved oxygen. This creates hypoxic conditions
that are harmful to aquatic organisms and disrupt aquatic ecosystems (WHO, 2019).

Urban rivers are the most severely affected. Rivers such as the Yamuna in Delhi, the Ganga
in Kanpur and Varanasi, the Musi in Hyderabad, and the Cooum in Chennai receive
wastewater from hundreds of drains carrying untreated domestic sewage. In many cities,
sewage treatment plants (STPs) operate below capacity due to poor maintenance, power
shortages, and technical inefficiencies. Consequently, even treated effluent often fails to meet
prescribed discharge standards (MoEFCC, 2021).

Rural areas also contribute to domestic water pollution. Inadequate sanitation facilities,
poorly designed septic tanks, and open defecation in some regions lead to faecal
contamination of surface and groundwater. Leaching of pollutants from pit latrines and septic
systems contaminates drinking water sources, particularly shallow aquifers (UNICEF, 2021).

➢ Industrial Effluents :-
Industrial effluents constitute a major source of water pollution in India. Rapid industrial
growth, especially in sectors such as textiles, tanneries, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, pulp and
paper, sugar mills, distilleries, and thermal power plants, has significantly increased industrial
wastewater generation. These effluents often contain toxic substances that are harmful to both
ecosystems and human health (World Bank, 2019).

Industrial wastewater may contain heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium, chromium,
arsenic), acids, alkalis, dyes, solvents, phenols, oils, and organic chemicals. Many of these
substances are non-biodegradable and persist in the environment for long periods. Heavy
metals accumulate in sediments and aquatic organisms, entering the food chain and causing
bioaccumulation and biomagnification (UNEP, 2018).

Although environmental regulations mandate the installation of effluent treatment plants

(ETPs), compliance is uneven. Small-scale industries often lack the financial and technical
capacity to treat wastewater adequately. In industrial clusters, common effluent treatment
plants (CETPs) are frequently overloaded or poorly maintained. Illegal discharge of untreated
effluents into rivers and drains is common due to weak monitoring and enforcement (CPCB,
2022).

Industrial pollution has severely degraded several river stretches across India. Tannery
effluents have polluted rivers in Tamil Nadu, chemical industries have contaminated rivers in
Gujarat, and industrial clusters along rivers in Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and West Bengal
have adversely affected both surface water and groundwater quality (MoEFCC, 2021).

Agricultural Runoff :-
Agriculture is a major non-point source of water pollution in India. The Green Revolution
significantly increased agricultural productivity through the use of chemical fertilisers,
pesticides, and herbicides. However, excessive and indiscriminate application of these inputs
has led to widespread contamination of water resources (FAO, 2017).
Nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilisers are washed off agricultural fields
into nearby rivers, lakes, and ponds during rainfall and irrigation. This nutrient enrichment
leads to eutrophication, characterised by excessive algal growth, oxygen depletion, and fish
mortality. Eutrophication degrades water quality, reduces biodiversity, and affects fisheries
and recreational uses of water bodies (UNEP, 2018).

Pesticides and insecticides used in agriculture contain toxic compounds that persist in the
environment. These chemicals contaminate surface water and groundwater, posing risks to
aquatic life and human health. Nitrate contamination of groundwater is particularly
widespread in agricultural states such as Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. High
nitrate levels in drinking water are associated with health problems such as
methemoglobinemia in infants (WHO, 2017).

Agricultural runoff is difficult to regulate because it is diffuse and originates from large areas
rather than identifiable discharge points. This makes traditional regulatory approaches less
effective and highlights the need for sustainable agricultural practices and integrated
watershed management.

➢ Solid Waste and Plastic Pollution :-

Improper management of solid waste is an increasingly important cause of water pollution in
India. Rapid urbanisation and changing consumption patterns have led to a sharp rise in
municipal solid waste generation. Due to inadequate waste collection, segregation, and
disposal systems, large quantities of waste are dumped in open areas, along riverbanks, or
into drains (MoEFCC, 2022).

Plastic pollution has emerged as a particularly serious concern. Plastic bags, bottles,
packaging materials, and single-use plastics accumulate in rivers, lakes, and wetlands.
Plastics block drains, reduce water flow, and harm aquatic organisms through ingestion and
entanglement. Over time, plastics break down into microplastics, which contaminate water
and enter the food chain (UNEP, 2021).

Indian rivers act as major transport pathways for plastic waste, carrying it from inland areas
to the oceans. This contributes not only to freshwater pollution but also to global marine
pollution, affecting coastal ecosystems and fisheries.

➢ Religious and Cultural Practices :-

Rivers in India hold immense religious, cultural, and social significance. However, certain
religious and cultural practices contribute to water pollution, especially in urban areas. Ritual
bathing, mass religious gatherings, idol immersion during festivals, and disposal of religious
offerings introduce organic waste, chemical paints, plaster of Paris, and non-biodegradable
materials into water bodies (CPCB, 2020).

Idol immersion releases heavy metals and toxic substances from paints into water, while
organic waste increases BOD levels. Large religious gatherings place additional pressure on
sanitation facilities, resulting in increased sewage discharge into rivers. Although awareness
campaigns and guidelines promoting eco-friendly practices have been introduced, their
implementation remains limited.
 Funeral pyres burn at Manikarnika Ghat, one of the oldest and most sacred places for Hindus to be cremated, on
the banks of the river Ganges in Varanasi, India, in 2019

➢ Mining and Construction Activities :-

Mining activities contribute to water pollution through sediment runoff, heavy metal
contamination, and acid mine drainage. Open-cast mining exposes soil and rock surfaces,
increasing erosion and siltation in rivers and streams. Acid mine drainage releases acidic
water containing dissolved metals into nearby water bodies, severely degrading water quality
(UNEP, 2018).

Construction activities, particularly in urban areas, also contribute to water pollution.

Infrastructure development, sand mining, and real estate expansion increase sediment loads in
rivers and lakes. This reduces water depth, disrupts aquatic habitats, and alters natural river
flow patterns.

➢ Groundwater Pollution :-
Groundwater is a critical source of drinking water in India, especially in rural and semi-urban
areas. However, groundwater pollution is increasingly becoming a major concern.
Contaminants from surface activities, such as industrial waste disposal, agricultural runoff,
sewage infiltration, and landfill leachate, infiltrate aquifers and contaminate
groundwatersupplies (WHO, 2017). In addition to anthropogenic pollution, natural
contamination with arsenic and fluoride affects millions of people across several states.
Human activities such as over-extraction of groundwater exacerbate these problems by
altering hydrogeological conditions and concentrating pollutants. Once contaminated,
groundwater is extremely difficult and expensive to clean, making prevention essential.

➢ Institutional and Governance Failures :-

Institutional and governance failures play a significant role in worsening water pollution in
India. Although the country has a legal framework for pollution control, including the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, enforcement remains weak. Regulatory
agencies face challenges such as inadequate staffing, limited monitoring capacity, and lack of
coordination among institutions (MoEFCC, 2021).

Many sewage treatment plants operate inefficiently or fail to meet discharge standards due to
poor maintenance and energy shortages. Inadequate funding, corruption, and political
pressures further undermine pollution control efforts. Public participation and awareness
remain limited, reducing accountability and compliance.

➢ Urbanisation, Population Pressure, and Climate

Change :-
India’s growing population places enormous pressure on water resources. Increased water
demand leads to higher wastewater generation, while land-use changes reduce natural
filtration through wetlands and floodplains. Encroachment of riverbanks and lakes reduces
their capacity to absorb pollutants and regulate water flow.

Climate change further intensifies water pollution by altering rainfall patterns, increasing the
frequency of extreme weather events, and reducing river flows during dry seasons. Lower
water flows reduce dilution capacity, increasing pollutant concentrations in rivers and lakes
(IPCC, 2021).
Types of Water Pollution
Water pollution is one of the most serious environmental challenges faced by the modern
world. It refers to the contamination of water bodies such as rivers, lakes, groundwater, seas,
and oceans by physical, chemical, and biological substances that degrade water quality and
make it harmful for human use and aquatic life. Water pollution affects drinking water
supplies, food production, ecosystems, public health, and economic activities. Based on
the nature of pollutants, sources, and impacts, water pollution can be classified into several
major types. Understanding these types is essential for effective prevention, control, and
management of water resources.

1. Physical Water Pollution

Physical water pollution involves changes in the physical characteristics of water without
necessarily altering its chemical composition. These changes include increased turbidity,
temperature variation, colour changes, and the presence of suspended solids.

Sources

Physical pollution is mainly caused by soil erosion, deforestation, mining activities,

construction work, sand mining, and improper disposal of solid waste. Large-scale
infrastructure projects and urban expansion disturb natural landscapes, allowing sediments to
be washed into rivers and lakes during rainfall.

Characteristics

The most common indicator of physical pollution is turbidity, which refers to the cloudiness
of water caused by suspended particles such as silt, clay, and organic matter. Thermal
discharges from industries and power plants also cause physical pollution by increasing water
temperature.
Impacts

Physical pollution reduces sunlight penetration, which affects photosynthesis in aquatic

plants. Sediments can clog fish gills, smother breeding grounds, and destroy habitats of
bottom-dwelling organisms. Increased water temperature reduces dissolved oxygen levels,
stressing aquatic life and altering species composition. In India, siltation of rivers due to
construction and sand mining has significantly reduced river depth and water-holding
capacity (UNEP, 2018).

2. Chemical Water Pollution

Chemical water pollution occurs when toxic chemicals enter water bodies and alter water
quality. This type of pollution is particularly dangerous due to the persistence and toxicity of
chemical substances.

Sources

Chemical pollution originates from industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, oil spills,
household detergents, mining activities, and improper disposal of chemical waste. Industries
such as textiles, tanneries, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and paper mills are major
contributors.

Common Chemical Pollutants

• Heavy metals (lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium)

• Acids and alkalis
• Pesticides and herbicides
• Petroleum hydrocarbons
• Synthetic chemicals

Impacts

Chemical pollutants are toxic to aquatic organisms and often accumulate in sediments and
living tissues. Through bioaccumulation and biomagnification, these toxins move up the
food chain, affecting fish, animals, and humans. Long-term exposure can lead to cancer,
neurological disorders, kidney damage, and reproductive problems (WHO, 2017). In India,
rivers near industrial belts often show high levels of heavy metal contamination.

3. Biological (Microbial) Water Pollution

Biological water pollution is caused by the presence of disease-causing microorganisms in
water.

Sources

The primary sources include untreated domestic sewage, open defecation, animal waste,
hospital effluents, and leaking septic tanks.
Types of Pathogens

• Bacteria (Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella)

• Viruses (Hepatitis A, Rotavirus)
• Protozoa (Giardia, Entamoeba)
• Parasites (Schistosoma)

Impacts

Biological pollution makes water unsafe for drinking and domestic use. It causes waterborne
diseases such as cholera, typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis, and diarrhoea. According to the World
Health Organization, unsafe water and poor sanitation are responsible for millions of
preventable deaths annually, especially among children in developing countries (WHO,
2019).

4. Nutrient Water Pollution

Nutrient pollution occurs due to excessive amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus entering
water bodies.

Sources

• Agricultural fertilisers
• Domestic sewage
• Livestock waste
• Food processing industries

Process: Eutrophication

Excess nutrients stimulate rapid growth of algae and aquatic plants. When these organisms
die and decompose, oxygen levels drop sharply, creating hypoxic or anoxic conditions.

Impacts

Eutrophication leads to fish kills, loss of biodiversity, unpleasant odours, and degradation of
water quality. Lakes and slow-flowing rivers are particularly vulnerable. Nutrient pollution
also increases water treatment costs and reduces recreational value (UNEP, 2018).

5. Thermal Water Pollution

Thermal pollution occurs when heated water is discharged into natural water bodies, raising
their temperature.

Sources

• Thermal power plants

• Nuclear power plants
• Industrial cooling systems
Impacts

Higher water temperatures reduce dissolved oxygen levels and increase metabolic rates of
aquatic organisms. Sudden temperature changes can cause thermal shock, leading to fish
mortality. Thermal pollution also alters species composition by favouring heat-tolerant
species over sensitive ones (World Bank, 2019).

6. Radioactive Water Pollution

Radioactive pollution occurs when radioactive substances contaminate water bodies.

Sources

• Nuclear power plants

• Uranium mining
• Medical and research waste
• Nuclear accidents

Impacts

Radioactive substances cause genetic mutations, cancer, and long-term ecological damage.
Though rare, radioactive water pollution has severe and long-lasting consequences due to the
persistence of radioactive isotopes (UNEP, 2018).

7. Oil Water Pollution

Oil pollution involves the release of petroleum products into water bodies.

Sources

• Oil spills
• Offshore drilling
• Shipping accidents
• Urban runoff

Impacts

Oil forms a layer on water that blocks oxygen exchange, smothers aquatic organisms, and
damages habitats. It affects fish, birds, and coastal ecosystems and has long-term
environmental and economic impacts (UNEP, 2021).

8. Groundwater Pollution
Groundwater pollution occurs when contaminants seep into underground aquifers.

Sources

• Agricultural chemicals
 • Industrial waste disposal
• Landfills
• Septic tank leakage

Common Contaminants

• Arsenic
• Fluoride
• Nitrates
• Heavy metals

Impacts

Contaminated groundwater poses serious health risks, including fluorosis, arsenicosis, and
nitrate poisoning. Since groundwater moves slowly and is difficult to clean, pollution often
persists for decades (WHO, 2017).

9. Plastic and Microplastic Pollution

Plastic pollution refers to the accumulation of plastic waste in water bodies.

Sources

• Single-use plastics
• Improper waste management
• Urban stormwater runoff

Impacts

Plastics harm aquatic organisms through ingestion and entanglement. Microplastics

contaminate water and enter the food chain, posing potential risks to human health. Rivers act
as major pathways carrying plastic waste to oceans (UNEP, 2021).

10. Point Source and Non-Point Source Water Pollution

Point Source Pollution

Pollution originating from identifiable sources such as factory discharge pipes, sewage
outlets, and treatment plants.

Non-Point Source Pollution

Diffuse pollution from large areas, including agricultural runoff, urban stormwater, and
rainfall washing pollutants into water bodies.

Non-point source pollution is particularly challenging to control due to its widespread and
scattered nature.
Case Study: Yamuna River, Delhi
The Yamuna River :- Location and tributaries

River Yamuna is the largest tributary of the Ganga River in North India. Its
total length is around 1370 kilometers. Yamuna originates from the
Yamunotri Glacier of Uttar Kashi in Uttar Pradesh. River Tons and Giri are
the important tributaries of Yamuna and principle source of water in
mountainous ranges. Yamuna flows through the states of Delhi, Haryana
and Uttar Pradesh, before merging with the Ganges at Allahabad. World
famous cities like Delhi, Mathura and Agra lie on its banks.

The Yamuna River is one of the primary rivers of India with social, economic,
religious and cultural [Link] to Hindu traditions, it is worshiped
as a sacred river and a number of pilgrimage centres like the Yamunotri,
Poanta-Sahab, Mathura, and Allahabad are situated along its banks
(Upadhyay et al, 2010). Yamunotri glacier in the lower Himalayas (38° 59° 78°
27 ° E) at 6320 meters above sea level in the Uttarakhand state of India is the
source of the Yamuna River (Khaiwal [Link]. 1999).

Owing to its diverse hydrological, geological and ecological character, the Yamuna
River-has been classified into five distinct segments (CPCB 2009). These segments are
tabulated below in Table 2 and the same is being diagrammatically depicted in figure 1.

Figure 1: Diagrammatic presentation of the segments of the

by Yamuna River
 Table 2: Major Water Quality Segments of the Yamuna River
Source:CPCB 2009

Usages of the Yamuna River Water :-

The Yamuna River sustains all forms of life along its banks and various social and
commercial activities depend on it(Upadhyay et al., 2010). It’s the major source of
drinking water to millions of Indian sand has multiple other uses (Ali and Jain, 2001).
The Yamuna Basin is of great economic significance due to its fertility and high
productivity, particularly many parts of Uttar Pradesh and Haryana (Maheshwari et
al., 2011).

Some well-designated uses of the water of the Yamuna River are as follows:

- Drinking water - Bathing water - Irrigation

- Livestock use - Industrial use - Navigation
- Aesthetics - Recreation and - Religious and Cultural
1215
The availability water of the Yamuna River varies greatly with time and space with
80% of the water flowing in it in the Monsoon period (July, August and September)
whereas whatever water is available in it in the non-monsoon-period (October to June)
is widely used for irrigation and drinking, leaving very little water in the
river to flow (CPCB 2010). Along its course, the water of Yamuna River is abstracted
for a variety of purposes such as about 94% for irrigation, 4% for domestic use, and
2% for the industries. The river water is extensively abstracted at Hathnikund and
Okhla [Link] annual abstraction at various locations is depicted inTable 3.

Table 3: Abstraction of water from the Yamuna RiverLocation State Purpose

Water abstraction and states :-

Yamuna River :- Delhi

Yamuna River passing through 22 km in Delhi was once described as the

lifeline of the city, but today it has become one of the dirtiest rivers in the
country. According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) the
water quality of Yamuna River falls under the category "E" which makes it
fit only for recreation and industrial cooling, completely ruling out the
possibility for under- water life. The pollution of the Yamuna River from
domestic discharges from Delhi, Ghaziabad, Noida, Faridabad, Mathura
and Agra has rendered the river unfit for any use. Delhi around 3296 MLD
(million litres per day) of sewage by virtue of drains out falling in Yamuna
and approximately 3.5 lakh people live in the 62000 Jhuggis that have
come up on the Yamuna river bed and its embankment. Because of the
low flow (due to different barrages) and huge quantity of waste it
receives the Yamuna river within the limits of the city have been given
the dubious distinction of being one of the worst polluted rivers of the
country by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
 According to the latest status of water quality in India (2007) released by
CPCB the Yamuna water quality at Okhla and Niza- mudin bridges has
been described as the worst affected. As per data on water quality of
water bodies and groundwater locations; it was placed seventh on the list
of rivers with highest Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), one of the
most important indicators of pollution. The total biochemical oxygen
demand content in the Yamuna was 93 mg/L, while the permissible level
is 3 mg/L. The CPCB report says that the level of Dis- solved Oxygen
throughout the year in Yamuna was less than 4 mg/L and it was 0.0 mg/L
at few locations down-stream of urban settlements due to discharge of
untreated and partially treated wastewater. The water quality of Yamuna
has deteriorated at Paonta Sahib, Kalanaur, Sonepat, Palla, Nizammudin,
Okhla, Mazawali, Mathura, Agra, Bateshwar, Etawah, Juhika and Allaha-
bad the western Yamuna canal downstream of Yamuna Nagar at Damla is
" grossly polluted due to municipal and industrial waste water disposal".
The Yamuna is widely worshipped by devotees in In- dia. A few centuries ago
it prompted the Mughals to build one of their most magnificent monuments;
the Taj Mahal on its bank; but today it has been reduced to a pale and stinking
drain. About 57 million people depend on Yamuna River water. With an
annual flow of about 10,000 cubic metres (cum) and usage of 4,400 cum (of
which irrigation constitutes 96 percent), the river ac- counts for more than 70
percent of Delhi's water supplies. Available water treatment facilities are not
capable of removing the pesticide traces. Waterworks laboratories cannot
even detect them. Worse, Yamuna leaves Delhi as a sewer, laden with the
city's biological and chemical wastes. Downstream, at Mathura and Agra, this
becomes the main municipal drinking water [Link], too, existing
treatment facilities are not capable of detecting pollutants contained by river
water. Thus, consumers in Mathura and Agra ingest unknown amounts of
toxic pesticide residues each time they drink water. In Agra and Matura
districts, the domestic and industrial users pro- duce large quantities of waste
products and the water- ways provide a cheap and effective way of disposing
them.