Module 10- Sleep

Video #1: Circadian Rhythms and Zeitgebers

-​ natural cyclical changes that unfold over other periods of time. ​

As examples of cycles that take longer than 24-hours to unfold, there is the lunar cycle,
which is about 29.5 days and which influences the ocean tides, and there are the cyclical
changes of the seasons in a year
-​ many organisms on the earth experience internal biological rhythms that closely match
the physical cycles of nature.
internal cycles of organisms:
-​ driven by exogenous changes in the environment (i.e., those that are external to the
organism), and endogenous biological clocks (that are internal to the organism) that
operate in a cyclical pattern even if the organism is not exposed to the external changes in
the environment.
-​ biological rhythms are vast, and endogenous cycles that repeat roughly every 24-hours,

Circadian Rhythms

●​ Circadian Rhythms: Biological cycles occurring roughly every 24 hours.

○​ Derived from Latin: "circa" (about) and "dies" (day).
○​ Affect various internal physiological processes.

Hormonal Changes

●​ Graphs: Show circadian changes in hormone levels.

○​ Gray rectangle: Common sleep time (nocturnal period).
1.​ Cortisol (Stress Hormone)
○​ Prepares body and mind for action, especially under stress.
○​ Pattern:
■​ Low after sleep onset.
■​ Spike just before waking.
○​ Effect:
■​ Morning alertness, readiness to start the day.
2.​ Melatonin (Sleep Hormone)
○​ Triggers and maintains sleep.
○​ Pattern:
■​ Low during wakefulness.
■​ Sharp increase before sleep onset.
 ■​ High during sleep, decrease before waking.
○​ Synchronization:
■​ Opposite to cortisol pattern.
3.​ Human Growth Hormone (HGH)
○​ Promotes growth and cellular regeneration.
○​ Pattern:
■​ Significant increase shortly after sleep onset.

Other Physiological Changes

●​ Heart Rate and Body Temperature

○​ Both decrease during sleep compared to wakefulness.
●​ Skin Cell DNA Replication
○​ Increased during night, indicative of skin regeneration.
○​ Correlates with growth hormone surge.

Variations in Performance

●​ Chronotype: Individual preference for sleep timing.

○​ Two general types:
1.​ Early Chronotype ("Larks")
■​ Prefer early mornings, energetic in the morning.
■​ Peak performance: Morning.
2.​ Late Chronotype ("Night Owls")
■​ Prefer late mornings/nights, energetic in the evening.
■​ Peak performance: Evening.
○​ Study Reference: Facer-Childs, Boiling & Balanos (2018).

Cognitive and Physical Performance

●​ Self-Assessment of Optimal Time

○​ Graph 1: Average ratings of "feeling at one's best" throughout the day.
■​ Slightly bimodal: Peaks in morning and evening.
●​ Chronotype-Specific Performance
○​ Graph 2: Separated data for "morning people" and "evening people."
■​ Masked by overall average data.
○​ Results:
■​ Morning people peak in the morning.
■​ Evening people peak in the evening.

Sleepiness Levels and Chronotype

●​ Graph 3: Sleepiness during workday by chronotype.

 ○​ Measurement: Karolinska Sleepiness Scale (KSS).
○​ Pattern:
■​ Early chronotypes: Less sleepy in the morning, more sleepy as day
progresses.
■​ Late chronotypes: More sleepy in the morning, less sleepy in the evening.

Hormonal Surges and Chronotype

●​ Melatonin and Cortisol: Delayed surges in late chronotypes.

○​ Study Reference: Facer-Childs et al. (2018).

Cognitive and Physical Task Performance

●​ Psychomotor Vigilance Task

○​ Early chronotypes outperform late chronotypes in the morning.
○​ Late chronotypes perform better in the evening.
●​ Executive Function and Grip Strength
○​ Early chronotypes excel in the morning.
○​ Late chronotypes excel in the evening.

Changes with Age

●​ Chronotype Shifts
○​ Study Reference: Roenneberg et al. (2004).
○​ Pattern:
■​ Early chronotypes in childhood.
■​ Shift to late chronotypes in late teens/early 20s.
■​ Return to early chronotypes with aging.

Implications for School Start Times

●​ Delayed Start Times

○​ Study shows benefits of later start times for teens.
○​ Results:
■​ Reduced illness-related absences.
■​ Improved academic performance.
○​ Study Reference: Kelley, Lockley, Kelley & Evans (2017).

Gender Differences in Chronotype

●​ Findings
○​ Males are more likely to be night owls in early adulthood.
○​ Gender difference disappears later in life.
Free Running Rhythms and Zeitgebers

Endogenous Biological Rhythms

●​ Normal Circumstances: Endogenous biological rhythms follow a 24-hour cycle.

●​ Isolation from External Cues: Biological cycles tend to be slightly longer than 24 hours.
○​ Example of Isolation: Submariners, individuals in caves.

Free-Running Rhythms

●​ Decoupling from Environmental Cues: When biological cycles proceed on their own
timing without external cues.
●​ Desynchronization:
○​ Over Time: Individuals with free-running rhythms will begin to desynchronize
from those exposed to natural cues.
○​ Illustration:
■​ Exposed to Natural Light: Routine sleep at 10:00 pm, wake at 6:00 am.
■​ Free-Running: Sleep/wake times shift progressively later each day.

Study on Free-Running Rhythms

●​ Older Study Example (1980s):

○​ Participants: Prevented from sun exposure.
○​ Data Representation: Horizontal bars depict active/awake times.
○​ Observation: Sleep/wake periods shifted progressively; in some cases, completely
reversed by Day 15.

Entrainment and Zeitgebers

●​ Entrainment: Cyclical environmental cues reset circadian cycles to a 24-hour cycle.

○​ Key Term: Zeitgebers - "Time Givers" in German.
○​ Primary Zeitgeber: Light.

Impact of Light on Circadian Rhythms

●​ Blindness and Free-Running Rhythms:

○​ Blind Individuals: Free-running rhythms due to lack of light perception.
○​ Symptoms: Insomnia, daytime sleepiness as rhythms drift out of phase.
○​ Melatonin as a Zeitgeber: Small doses (0.5 to 10 mg) can help entrain blind
individuals to a 24-hour cycle.

Artificial Light and Circadian Disruption

 ●​ Comparison of Natural and Electric Light:
○​ Natural Light: Intense during the day, absent at night.
○​ Electric Light: Less intense during the day, present after sunset.
○​ Effect: Shifts biological cycles forward, promoting night owl tendencies.
●​ Study on Natural Light Exposure:
○​ Result: Camping shifts circadian rhythms to align with natural day-night cycle.
○​ Melatonin: Shifted release onset, midpoint, and offset to earlier times.

Sensitivity to Blue Light

●​ Blue Light Wavelength: 446-483 nm.

○​ Effect: Suppresses melatonin production.
○​ Disruption: Delays sleep when exposed to blue light in the evening.
●​ Studies:
○​ Exposure to Blue-Enriched Light: Disrupts sleep regulation (Chellappa et al.,
2013).
○​ LED Screens: Suppress melatonin after just two hours of exposure (Wood et al.,
2012).
○​ Phototoxicity: Potential retinal damage from blue light ("blue light hazard").

Mitigating Blue Light Effects

●​ Smart Devices: Features to reduce blue light emission.

○​ Adaptive Settings: Screen color shifts to red as evening progresses.
○​ Recommendation: Use these features to minimize disruption.

Other Factors Influencing Circadian Rhythms

●​ Exercise:
○​ High-Intensity Evening Exercise: Delays circadian cycle the next day (Buxton et
al., 2003).
●​ Temperature Changes:
○​ External Temperature: Fluctuations between 36°C and 38.5°C affect internal
clocks (Buhr et al., 2010).
●​ Mealtimes:
○​ Routine: Consistent mealtimes can entrain circadian systems (Stephan, 2002).

Social Influences on Circadian Rhythms

●​ Impact: Social activities (e.g., staying up late) can influence circadian rhythms.
○​ Mechanism: Likely through altering exposure to zeitgebers (light, feeding,
temperature, etc.).
Jet Lag

Circadian Rhythms and Air Travel

●​ Impact of Crossing Time Zones:

○​ Modern Air Travel: Enables rapid crossing of multiple time zones.
○​ Internal Clock Misalignment: Temporary misalignment with the light-dark cycle
at the destination (Eastman & Burgess, 2009).

Jet Lag Symptoms

●​ Symptoms of Jet Lag:

○​ Sleep Issues: Difficulty initiating or maintaining nighttime sleep.
○​ Daytime Symptoms: Daytime sleepiness, decreased alertness, loss of
concentration.
○​ Performance Impairment: Impaired performance, fatigue.
○​ Mood and Cognition: Irritability, disorientation, depressed mood.
○​ Physical Symptoms: Gastrointestinal disturbance (Eastman & Burgess, 2009, p.
1).

Eastward vs. Westward Travel

●​ Greater Jet Lag When Traveling Eastward:

○​ Reason: Difficulty in phase advancing the internal clock.
●​ Example:
○​ Eastward Travel (Vancouver to Toronto):
■​ Time Change: Adjust watch 3 hours forward.
■​ Internal Clock: Still on Vancouver time (3 hours behind).
■​ Mismatch: Toronto bedtime at 10:00 p.m. is only 7:00 p.m. internal time.
■​ Difficulty: Phase advancing is hard, leading to staying up later and feeling
tired the next day.
○​ Westward Travel (Toronto to Vancouver):
■​ Time Change: Turn back the clock 3 hours.
■​ Internal Clock: Still on Toronto time (3 hours ahead).
■​ Mismatch: Vancouver time at 7:00 p.m. is actually 10:00 p.m. internal
time.
■​ Easier Adjustment: Phase delay is easier due to the natural
longer-than-24-hour free-running clock.

Strategies to Reduce Jet Lag

●​ Combining Approaches:
 ○​ Light Exposure: Adjust exposure to light at the destination to help reset the
internal clock.
○​ Melatonin Use: Taking melatonin supplements at specific times can help entrain
the internal clock.
○​ Exercise: Engaging in physical activity at appropriate times can aid in adjusting
the circadian rhythm.

Additional Points

●​ Natural Tendency of the Free-Running Clock: Slightly longer than 24 hours, making
phase delays (westward travel) less disruptive than phase advances (eastward travel).
●​ Practical Applications:
○​ Plan Light Exposure: Use natural light strategically to help adjust to the new time
zone.
○​ Melatonin Timing: Take melatonin before bedtime in the new time zone to
promote sleep onset.
○​ Exercise Routine: Exercise in the morning or late afternoon at the destination to
help reset the internal clock.

Video #2: Internal Clocks, Wakefulness and Sleep

Internal Clocks: Detailed Notes

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

●​ Location and Name:

○​ Located in the hypothalamus, above the optic chiasm (hence "supra" meaning
above and "chiasmatic" meaning optic chiasm).
○​ Known as the master internal clock.
○​ Each SCN consists of approximately 20,000 cells.
●​ Function:
○​ Cells in the SCN contain a genetic mechanism that acts as a biological pacemaker
with an oscillation of roughly 24 hours (slightly longer in reality).

Circadian Oscillator Mechanism in SCN Cells

●​ Feedback Loop:
○​ Involves genes being transcribed to mRNA, translated into proteins, which then
inhibit the transcription of those genes.
 ○​ CLOCK-BMAL1 protein dimers in the nucleus transcribe DNA for cryptochrome
proteins (Cry) and period proteins (Per).
○​ Transcribed Cry and Per mRNA are translated into CRY and PER proteins in the
cytoplasm.
○​ CRY and PER proteins form complexes and move back into the nucleus to inhibit
CLOCK-BMAL1, completing the feedback loop.
○​ This cycle unfolds systematically, forming the core internal clock mechanism.

Relation to the Natural Day-Night Cycle

●​ Protein and mRNA Concentration Over 24-Hour Cycle:

○​ Night: High BMAL1 concentrations trigger Per and Cry mRNA production.
○​ Day: Per and Cry mRNA and proteins increase, forming CRY-PER complexes
that inhibit CLOCK-BMAL1, reducing BMAL1 protein levels.
○​ As PER-CRY levels fall, CLOCK-BMAL1 levels rise, restarting the cycle.

Light Influence on SCN Oscillators

●​ Retinohypothalamic Tract:
○​ Main input of light information from the retina to the SCN.
○​ Composed of axons from retinal ganglion cells, including intrinsically
photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) that transduce light using
melanopsin.
●​ Intrinsically Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells (ipRGCs):
○​ Less than 5% of retinal ganglion cells.
○​ Transduce light independently using melanopsin.
○​ Types: At least five types (M1-M5), each projecting to various brain regions.
○​ M1 cells project to the SCN, influencing circadian regulation by conveying
ambient light information.
●​ Photoentrainment:
○​ ipRGCs receive input from rods and cones; conventional photoreceptors and
ipRGCs both contribute to circadian photoentrainment.
○​ Rods are crucial at low light levels, while melanopsin-mediated responses
dominate at high light levels.

SCN's Influence on Physiological Functions

●​ Targets:
○​ Affects various physiological functions including the heart, kidneys, liver,
pancreas, spleen, adrenal glands, and pineal gland.
●​ Melatonin Regulation:
○​ SCN controls melatonin release from the pineal gland.
 ○​ Communicates through the paraventricular nucleus, intermediolateral nucleus of
the spinal cord, and superior cervical ganglion.
○​ Melatonin release increases before bedtime and during the night, influencing the
circadian clock and other central nervous system areas like the hippocampus,
prefrontal cortex, and cerebellum.
○​ Involved in sleep regulation and possibly memory.

Wakefulness and Sleep

Phases of Circadian Rhythms

●​ Wakefulness:
○​ Involves high responsiveness to external stimuli, increased motor activity, and
conscious experience.
●​ Sleep:
○​ Characterized by reduced responsiveness to external stimuli, reduced motor
activity, and absence of conscious experience.
○​ Dreaming involves reduced coherent thought and decoupling of conscious
thought from external events.

Brain Areas Involved in Wakefulness and Sleep

●​ Ascending Arousal System:

○​ Governs wakefulness via increasing arousal through ascending fibers.
○​ Basal Forebrain:
■​ Releases acetylcholine (excites cortical cells) and GABA (inhibits
inhibitory interneurons, net excitatory effect).
○​ Pedunculopontine (PPT) and Laterodorsal Tegmental (LDT) Nuclei:
■​ Located in the brainstem, release acetylcholine to activate the thalamus,
lateral hypothalamus, basal forebrain, and prefrontal cortex.
○​ Tuberomammillary Nucleus (Hypothalamus):
■​ Releases histamine, projecting to and exciting the thalamus, lateral
hypothalamus, basal forebrain, and cortex.
○​ Brainstem Nuclei:
■​ Locus Coeruleus: Releases norepinephrine.
■​ Dorsal and Medial Raphe Nuclei: Release serotonin.
■​ Ventral Periaqueductal Grey (vPAG): Uses dopamine.
○​ Lateral Hypothalamus:
■​ Releases orexin (hypocretin) and melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH),
projecting to other excitatory regions and the cortex.
●​ Descending Arousal System:
○​ Ventrolateral Preoptic Nucleus (VLPO):
 ■​ Releases GABA and galanin, inhibiting the ascending arousal system
primarily during sleep.

Flip-Flop Switch Mechanism

●​ Mutual Antagonism:
○​ Ascending arousal system and VLPO inhibit each other.
○​ Creates a flip-flop switch allowing rapid shifts between wakefulness and sleep.
○​ Wakefulness State:
■​ Arousal system active, inhibiting VLPO.
○​ Sleep State:
■​ VLPO active, inhibiting arousal system.

Regulatory Systems of Wakefulness and Sleep

●​ Two-Process Model of Sleep Regulation:

○​ Circadian System:
■​ SCN oscillators cyclically produce wakefulness and sleep.
■​ SCN controls the flip-flop switch indirectly by inhibiting VLPO and
activating excitatory orexin neurons in the lateral hypothalamus.
■​ At night, reduced SCN influence allows the switch to flip to sleep mode.
○​ Homeostatic System:
■​ Progressive buildup of sleep pressure during wakefulness, reduction
during sleep.
■​ Key component: Adenosine:
■​ Produced by ATP metabolism during wakefulness.
■​ Acts on presynaptic A1 and postsynaptic A2A receptors, reducing
activity in wakefulness-maintaining areas and disinhibiting
sleep-promoting VLPO neurons.
■​ Increases sleep pressure, flipping the switch towards sleep.

Interaction of Circadian and Homeostatic Systems

●​ Combined Influence:
○​ Homeostatic system mainly triggers sleep onset.
○​ Circadian system maintains sleep later in the night as homeostatic sleep pressure
decreases.

Video #3: Stages of Sleep

Techniques for Studying Sleep

●​ Electroencephalogram (EEG):
 ○​ Measures brain activity via electrodes placed on the scalp.
○​ Captures electrical activity from the surface of the skull during sleep.
●​ Complementary Techniques:
○​ Electromyography (EMG): Measures muscle activity.
○​ Electro-oculography (EOG): Measures eye movements.
○​ Electrocardiogram (ECG): Measures heart activity.
○​ Air Flow and Breathing Indices: Assess respiratory function.
●​ Polysomnography:
○​ Combines EEG, EMG, EOG, ECG, and respiratory measures.
○​ Provides a comprehensive assessment of physiological functioning during sleep.
○​ Term derives from "poly" (multiple), "somnus" (sleep), and "graph" (readout),
meaning "multiple-sleep-readouts".

Observations of Sleep Stages

●​ Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep:

○​ Characterized by rapid side-to-side eye movements.
○​ Identified by observing the corneal bulge moving under closed eyelids.
●​ Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) Sleep:
○​ Eyes remain stationary.
○​ Divided into four stages: NREM Stages 1, 2, 3, and 4.

EEG Characteristics of Sleep Stages

●​ Wakeful Relaxation:
○​ Alpha Waves: 8-13 cycles per second (Hz).
○​ Beta Waves: Greater than 13 Hz.
○​ Desynchronized brain activity due to various tasks.
●​ NREM Stage 1:
○​ Theta Waves: 4-8 Hz, low amplitude.
○​ Muscles less active, eyes stop moving.
○​ Shallow sleep, easily awakened.
●​ NREM Stage 2:
○​ Sleep Spindles: Bursts of synchronized activity, 12-14 Hz, lasting 0.5-2 seconds.
■​ Originate from the thalamus.
○​ K Complexes: High-amplitude fluctuations associated with sleep spindles.
■​ May respond to external stimuli, originate from the anterior cingulate
cortex.
○​ Prevents awakening from irrelevant distractions, aids memory consolidation,
linked to fluid intelligence.
○​ Eyes still, muscles more relaxed, deeper sleep.
 ●​ NREM Stages 3 and 4 (Slow Wave Sleep, SWS):
○​ Delta Waves: Large amplitude, low frequency (<4.5 Hz).
○​ Brain activity synchronized.
○​ Reduced cerebral blood flow (~10% less than wakefulness).
○​ Slowed respiration and heart rate, muscles relaxed, resistant to disruption.
●​ REM Sleep:
○​ EEG shows low amplitude, high-frequency oscillations (desynchronized brain
activity).
○​ Increased heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure.
○​ Associated with dreaming.
○​ Increased cortical blood flow (up to 8%).
○​ Activation in ventral visual association areas, reduced in prefrontal areas and
primary visual areas.
○​ Muscle tone lowest, only ocular muscles active.

Mechanism of Sleep Stage Transitions

●​ Brainstem Nuclei Activity:

○​ Aminergic Neurons: Release norepinephrine and serotonin.
○​ Cholinergic Neurons: Release acetylcholine.
○​ During wakefulness: Aminergic > Cholinergic.
○​ During NREM: Decreased aminergic activity.
○​ During REM: Cholinergic > Aminergic.
○​ Governed by a flip-flop switch mechanism.

Sleep Cycle and Hypnogram

●​ Hypnogram:
○​ Represents time spent in different sleep stages over a night.
○​ Cycles through stages, descending into deep sleep, returning to early stages, and
entering REM.
○​ Cycles repeat approximately every 90 minutes, around 5 cycles per night.
○​ Deep sleep more common early in the night, REM sleep more common later.

Individual and Age-Related Differences in Sleep Patterns

●​ Consistency:
○​ Individual sleep patterns are consistent across nights, with high heritability.
○​ Considerable individual differences in sleep patterns.
●​ Age-Related Changes:
○​ Increase in wakefulness with age.
○​ Stages 1 and 2 peak in middle age.
 ○​ Decrease in slow wave sleep (SWS) and REM sleep with age.
○​ Comparisons between young and older adults show more wakefulness, less deep
sleep, and less REM sleep in older adults.
●​ Developmental Changes:
○​ Babies sleep more, with a larger proportion of REM sleep.

Video #4: Sleep Deprivation and Sleep Functions

Introduction

●​ Common Occurrence: Many individuals have experienced sleep deprivation, either by

pulling all-nighters for exams or staying up late for social activities.
●​ Significance: Emerging research underscores that both acute and chronic sleep
deprivation can profoundly impact cognition, performance, and emotional regulation.
●​ Gradual Impact: The adverse effects of sleep deprivation tend to exacerbate with
prolonged deprivation.

Cognitive Impairments

Attention

●​ Impact on Attention: Sleep deprivation is linked with reduced performance on tasks

requiring sustained attention.
●​ Empirical Evidence: A study showed a positive correlation between cumulative sleep
debt over two weeks and the number of attention lapses on a psychomotor vigilance task.
The more sleep-deprived participants were, the more attention lapses they experienced.
●​ Brain Regions Involved: The dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), crucial for
attention control, shows decreased activity during sleep deprivation.

Memory

●​ Interference with Memory Formation: Sleep deprivation hampers the formation of new
memories.
●​ Mechanisms: In animal models, sleep deprivation leads to an accumulation of adenosine
in the brain, suppressing learning mechanisms in the hippocampus.
●​ Human Studies:
○​ One study indicated that a single night of sleep deprivation significantly reduced
performance on learning tasks.
○​ Sleep deprivation also resulted in decreased hippocampal activation during
memory recall.
 ○​ The study concluded that sleep is crucial both after learning for memory
consolidation and before learning for preparing the brain for new memory
formation (Yoo et al., 2007).
●​ Importance of Non-REM Slow Wave Sleep: Disrupting slow wave sleep (SWS)
particularly harms memory consolidation (Krause et al., 2017).
●​ Connectivity Alterations: Sleep deprivation alters the connectivity between the
hippocampus and other learning-related brain areas, such as the DLPFC.
●​ Neurogenesis: Animal studies show that sleep deprivation reduces neurogenesis in the
hippocampus (Muller et al., 2008).

Academic Performance

●​ Link to Poor School Performance: Sleep deprivation correlates with poorer academic
outcomes, particularly in younger children and boys (Dewald et al., 2010).
●​ Factors Influencing Sleep Patterns: Early school start times and increased media use
before bedtime contribute to poor sleep quality in young people (Li et al., 2007;
Exelmans & Van den Bulck, 2017).

Physical Performance

●​ Athletic Performance: Less sleep is associated with a higher likelihood of injuries in

adolescent athletes. The risk of injury increases as average sleep per night decreases.

Emotional Regulation

●​ Emotional Volatility: Sleep deprivation heightens negative emotional responses,

including irritability, anxiety, aggression, and even suicidal thoughts (Krause et al.,
2017).
●​ Amygdala Activation:
○​ Sleep-deprived individuals show increased amygdala activity when exposed to
aversive stimuli.
○​ This heightened activity suggests an enhanced sensitivity to negative information.
○​ Connectivity between the amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex (responsible for
emotion regulation) is reduced during sleep deprivation, exacerbating emotional
reactivity.

Summary

●​ Wide-Ranging Effects: Sleep deprivation affects attention, memory, academic

performance, physical performance, and emotional regulation.
●​ Brain Areas: Key brain regions impacted include the DLPFC, hippocampus, and
amygdala.
 ●​ Broader Implications: The adverse effects extend beyond those discussed, potentially
increasing impulsivity, risk-taking, and susceptibility to illnesses (Krause et al., 2017

Functions of Sleep

Restoration and Replenishment

●​ Growth Hormone: During sleep, there's a significant spike in growth hormone, which is
crucial for tissue growth and repair.
●​ Cell Replication: Increased cell replication occurs at night, contributing to the body’s
restoration processes.
●​ Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP):
○​ Energy Source: ATP is essential for neural function.
○​ Sleep-Related Spike: Animal studies show a surge in ATP levels immediately
after sleep onset, particularly in brain regions active during wakefulness (Dworak
et al., 2010).
○​ Restorative Processes: This ATP increase facilitates restorative biosynthetic
processes during sleep.

Clearance of Undesirable Substances

●​ Adenosine Clearance:
○​ Sleep Pressure: Adenosine, a byproduct of ATP usage, builds up during
wakefulness and induces sleep pressure.
○​ Sleep Function: Sleep helps clear excess adenosine. Insufficient sleep prevents
this clearance, leading to increased adenosine load (Krause et al., 2017, p. 413).
●​ Beta-Amyloid Clearance:
○​ Neurodegenerative Disease: High levels of beta-amyloid protein are associated
with neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's.
○​ Mechanism of Clearance:
■​ Interstitial Space: During sleep, the interstitial space between cortical cells
increases, enhancing the movement and removal of substances.
■​ Research Findings:
■​ Tracer Study: Researchers injected tracers into the cerebrospinal
fluid of mice and observed the spread of these tracers in awake and
asleep states.
■​ Efficiency During Sleep: Tracers spread more effectively during
sleep, indicating efficient clearance of substances.
■​ Beta-Amyloid Clearance: The rate of beta-amyloid protein
clearance was higher during sleep than wakefulness.
 ■​ Conclusion: Increased interstitial space during sleep facilitates the
efficient convective clearance of beta-amyloid and other
compounds (Xie, Kang, Chen et al., 2013, p. 377).

Learning and Memory

●​ Sleep Deprivation: Lack of sleep impairs memory formation.

●​ Sleep and Memory Enhancement:
○​ Experimental Findings:
■​ Motor Sequence Learning Task: Participants trained on a simple motor
task showed better performance improvements when sleep was inserted
between learning and test sessions compared to wakefulness.
■​ Improvement with Sleep: The group that slept between the post-training
test and the first retest showed significant performance improvements.
This improvement was not observed in the group that remained awake
during the same period.
■​ Stage 2 Non-REM Sleep: The amount of improvement correlated with the
percentage of Non-REM Stage 2 sleep experienced.
○​ Memory Consolidation: Memory consolidation involves both Non-REM and
REM sleep (Boyce, Williams, & Admantidis, 2017).
○​ Molecular Studies: During sleep, there's increased production of proteins involved
in memory and learning (Stickgold, 2005, p. 1276).

Practical Implications

●​ Optimal Learning Strategy: To maximize learning and performance, it is essential to get a

good night's sleep between study sessions and tests.
●​ Cramming: Staying up late to cram for exams is not an effective learning strategy.
Adequate sleep is crucial for memory consolidation and overall cognitive performance.

Summary

●​ Restorative Functions: Sleep is vital for restoring and replenishing substances needed for
brain health and function, such as growth hormone and ATP.
●​ Clearing Waste Products: Sleep facilitates the clearance of adenosine and beta-amyloid
protein, preventing their accumulation and potential adverse effects on neural function.
●​ Enhancing Learning and Memory: Sleep is essential for memory consolidation, with
different stages of sleep contributing to various memory processes. Adequate sleep before
learning and testing significantly enhances performance.
 ●​ Overall Importance: Maintaining good sleep hygiene is crucial for cognitive, physical and
emotional well being. Adequate sleep is essential for effective learning, memory,
consolidation and overall brain health

Video #5: Dreaming and Sleep Disorders

Consciousness During Sleep

●​ Unique Quality: Sleep is distinguished from wakefulness by its unique quality of

consciousness, characterized by the presence of dreams.
●​ Study on Conscious Experience:
○​ Portable System: Participants used a portable system to detect wakefulness,
Non-REM sleep, and REM sleep (Fosse, Stickgold & Hobson, 2000).
○​ Interruption and Reporting: Participants were interrupted periodically and asked
to report their conscious experiences just before the interruption.
○​ Definitions:
■​ Thoughts: Any mental effort without clear images, such as contemplating,
brooding, and evaluating.
■​ Hallucinations: Endogenous sensations experienced as realistic
perceptions.
○​ Results:
■​ Thoughts: Decreased from wakefulness to Non-REM sleep, with the
lowest levels during REM sleep.
■​ Hallucinations: Almost non-existent during wakefulness, increased in
Non-REM sleep, and peaked during REM sleep.
○​ Conclusion: Dreaming occurs in both Non-REM and REM sleep, but is most
common during REM sleep.

Characteristics of Dreams

●​ Bizarre Content: Dreams often contain bizarre, incoherent content that feels real and
compelling, including:
○​ Distortions: E.g., a tiny car.
○​ Unusual Combinations: E.g., a bear in the bedroom.
○​ Impossible Events: E.g., flying like a bird.
○​ Vague Content: E.g., unclear locations.
○​ Discontinuous Timeline: E.g., sudden shifts in scenes (Revonsuo & Salmivalli,
1995, p. 174-175).

Activation-Synthesis Model of Dreaming

 ●​ Hypothesis: Dreams are triggered by neurons in the pons, which activate various brain
areas.
●​ Activated Areas:
○​ Sensory Processing: Leading to sensory hallucinations.
○​ Motor Areas: Involving the basal ganglia and cerebellum, leading to motor
hallucinations.
○​ Emotional Processing: Including the amygdala, leading to emotional content in
dreams.
○​ Memory Areas: Such as the hippocampus, leading to dream content related to past
experiences.
●​ Synthesis: The cortex synthesizes information from these areas into a narrative.
●​ Prefrontal Cortex: Relatively inactive, leading to less rational thought and allowing
incoherent content to pass as real.
●​ External Input: Attenuated during dreaming, making dreams less constrained by external
events.
●​ Motor System: Generally immobilized, preventing the dreamer from acting out the
dream.

Lucid Dreaming

●​ Definition: A state where the dreamer becomes aware they are dreaming and continues
the dream with this awareness.
●​ Enhancement: People can become better lucid dreamers through practice, using
techniques like pre-sleep autosuggestion.
●​ Pre-Sleep Autosuggestion: Setting a goal before sleep to recognize bizarre content as a
signal that one is dreaming.
●​ Laboratory Techniques: Researchers use pre-sleep autosuggestion to increase the
likelihood of participants entering a lucid dream state.

Brain Activity During Lucid Dreaming

●​ Signaling Lucid Dreams:

○​ Eye Movements: Participants signal lucid dreaming by making a systematic
pattern of eye movements.
○​ Electrooculogram (EOG): Detects eye movements.
○​ Electromyogram (EMG): Measures muscle activity.
○​ Electroencephalogram (EEG): Measures brain activity, focusing on the 40 Hz
frequency range.
●​ States of Brain Activity:
○​ Awake State:
■​ EOG: Shows systematic eye movements.
 ■​ EMG: Indicates muscle activity.
■​ EEG: Shows high power in the 40 Hz range across the frontal, temporal,
and occipital regions.
○​ REM Sleep:
■​ EOG: Shows tiny perturbations indicating standard eye movements.
■​ EMG: Shows minimal muscle activity.
■​ EEG: Shows reduced power in the 40 Hz range compared to wakefulness.
○​ Lucid Dreaming:
■​ EOG: Shows the specific side-to-side eye movement pattern.
■​ EEG: Shows greater power in the 40 Hz range in frontal regions compared
to REM sleep, but less than wakefulness.

Conclusion

●​ Composite State: Lucid dreaming is a hybrid state of wakefulness and dreaming, with
distinct brain activity patterns.
●​ Research Implications: Understanding lucid dreaming can provide insights into the
mechanisms of consciousness and the functions of sleep.

Sleep Disorders

Sleep Paralysis

●​ Definition: Sleep paralysis is a state where an individual feels completely paralyzed while
being cognitively awake.
●​ Mechanism: Muscle immobilization characteristic of REM sleep continues even though
the person is no longer sleeping.
●​ Symptoms:
○​ Paralysis: Inability to move.
○​ Hypnagogic Hallucinations: Hallucinations occurring while falling asleep.
○​ Hypnopompic Hallucinations: Hallucinations occurring while waking up.
○​ Common Hallucinations: Sensation of someone in the room, an entity sitting on
the chest, or a presence nearby.
●​ Cause: Likely due to REM sleep intruding into wakefulness.
●​ Impact: Can be a frightening experience due to the combination of paralysis and
hallucinations.

Narcolepsy

●​ Definition: A chronic sleep disorder characterized by overwhelming daytime drowsiness

and sudden attacks of sleep.
●​ Symptoms:
 ○​ Sleep Attacks: Sudden onset of sleep during the day.
○​ Cataplexy: Sudden loss of muscle strength during the day.
○​ Hypnagogic Hallucinations: Vivid, often frightening, hallucinations during the
transition to sleep.
○​ Sleep Paralysis: Temporary inability to move or speak while falling asleep or
upon waking.
●​ Causes:
○​ REM Sleep Intrusion: REM states entering into wakefulness.
○​ Orexin Deficiency: A lack of orexin (hypocretin), a neurotransmitter that
regulates arousal, wakefulness, and appetite.
○​ Triggers: Head injury, toxins, infection, inflammation.
●​ Diagnosis: Not all symptoms are required for diagnosis (Akintomide & Richards, 2011).

Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA)

●​ Definition: A common sleep disorder where breathing repeatedly stops and starts during
sleep due to airway obstruction.
●​ Symptoms:
○​ Snoring: Often loud and chronic.
○​ Gasping for Air: Intermittent gasping or choking during sleep.
○​ Sleep Disruption: Frequent arousals leading to poor sleep quality.
○​ Daytime Symptoms: Tiredness, morning headaches, difficulty concentrating.
●​ Prevalence:
○​ General Population: 9% to 38% in European and North American populations.
○​ Elderly Men: Up to 90% of men over 60 experience five or more apneic episodes
per hour.
○​ Risk Factors: High body-mass index, large volumes of upper airway tissue,
tongue fat (Senaratna et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2020).
●​ Treatment:
○​ CPAP Machine: Continuous Positive Airway Pressure machine to keep airways
open.
○​ Health Risks of Untreated OSA: Cardiovascular disease, depression, increased
risk of motor vehicle accidents (Shahar, Whitney et al., 2001; Harris et al., 2009;
Tregear et al., 2010).

Parasomnias

Non-REM Parasomnias

●​ Definition: Unusual behaviors and experiences occurring during Non-REM sleep.

●​ Types:
 ○​ Confusional Arousals: Momentary arousals where the person appears confused
and disoriented.
○​ Sleep Terrors: Sudden arousals from sleep with intense fear, screaming, and
agitation. Difficult to console and often no memory of the event.
○​ Somnambulism (Sleepwalking): Walking or performing complex behaviors while
asleep. Can include dangerous activities like driving or handling firearms
(Howell, 2012).
○​ Sexsomnia: Engaging in sexual activities while asleep (Rosenfeld & Elhajjar,
1998).
○​ Sleep-Related Eating Disorder: Eating during sleep without memory of the event.
○​ Sleep Texting: Sending texts while asleep, often nonsensical (Dowdell & Clayton,
2019).

REM Parasomnias

●​ Definition: Disorders characterized by a reduction in the muscle paralysis that typically

occurs during REM sleep.
●​ Types:
○​ REM Behavior Disorder (RBD): Acting out dreams, potentially leading to injury.
Can include aggressive behaviors.
●​ Causes: Failure of brainstem areas to suppress motor activity during REM sleep.
●​ Triggers: Can be a side-effect of antidepressant drugs in young people (Howell, 2012).

Insomnia

●​ Definition: Difficulty in falling asleep (onset insomnia) or staying asleep (maintenance

insomnia) despite the desire to sleep.
●​ Distinguishing Factor: Unlike sleep deprivation, insomnia involves an inability to sleep
despite the opportunity.
●​ Prevalence:
○​ General: Roughly 1 in 10 people experience insomnia.
○​ Increasing Rates: In Canada, prevalence increased by 42% from 2007 to 2015,
reaching 23.8% in 2015 (Chaput, Yau, Rao & Morin, 2018).
●​ Causes:
○​ Primary Cause: Stress and emotional distress leading to increased levels of
cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine.
○​ Environmental Factors: High levels of light, high room temperature, late-night
exercise and eating.
○​ Substance Use: Caffeine and alcohol.
○​ Irregular Sleep Schedule: Lack of consistent sleep cues.
 ●​ Health Impact: Linked to reduced size of parts of the amygdala (Gong, Liao, Liu et al.,
2019).

Conclusion

Understanding and addressing sleep disorders is crucial for overall health and well-being.
Awareness of the symptoms, causes, and treatments can help manage these conditions and
improve sleep quality.
Textbook Notes

Module 8.1: Rhythms of Waking and Sleeping (pp. 257-267)

Module 8.2: Stages of Sleep and Brain Mechanisms (pp. 268-279).