Polity module 2 most important question
Tuesday, 2 December 2025 2:40 PM
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SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (5–10 Marks)
1. What is Political Obligation? Briefly explain the command and
obedience relationship.
Political obligation means the moral duty of citizens to obey the laws of the state and to support the political
authority under which they live. It is not based only on fear of punishment but on the belief that obeying the
law is necessary for the good of society. Political obligation arises because people live together and need rules
to maintain order, protect rights, and ensure peaceful coexistence. Without political obligation, society would
fall into disorder as individuals would act only according to their personal interests.
The command and obedience relationship forms the basis of political obligation. The state is considered a
legitimate authority that has the right to issue commands in the form of laws, rules, and regulations. Citizens
obey these laws because they believe the state’s authority is justified and necessary. Obedience is not blind; it
is based on reason and moral acceptance. Citizens obey the state because it provides important services such
as security, justice, welfare, and protection of rights. The relationship is mutual: the state commands
responsibly and citizens obey so long as the commands are fair and morally acceptable.
Obedience is also necessary for stability. If every individual disobeys laws according to their personal liking,
society cannot function. At the same time, political obligation is not unlimited. If the state becomes unjust or
violates basic rights, the obligation may weaken. Modern political thinkers argue that political obligation exists
only when the state ensures justice, fairness, and protection of rights. Therefore, political obligation reflects a
balance between state authority and the moral duty of citizens to uphold social order.
2. What are D.D. Raphael’s views on Political Obligation?
D.D. Raphael explains political obligation as a moral duty that citizens have towards their state. According to
him, political obligation is not simply a legal requirement but a moral obligation that arises from living in a
community. Raphael believes that people obey the state’s laws because they recognize that doing so
promotes order, cooperation, and the common good. He rejects the idea that fear is the main reason for
obedience. Instead, obedience should come from a sense of responsibility.
Raphael highlights the idea of “fair play.” Every citizen receives benefits from society—such as protection, law
and order, and public services. Because everyone benefits, everyone must also share the duty of obeying the
law. It is unfair for individuals to take benefits without accepting obligations. Thus, political obligation arises
from fairness and reciprocity.
Raphael also argues that the state exists to promote the common good. When the state protects rights,
ensures justice, and maintains peace, citizens have a moral duty to obey its laws. He rejects the view that
consent is the only source of political obligation. Even without explicit consent, citizens are morally bound
because they choose to live in society and enjoy its advantages.
Therefore, Raphael’s view combines moral duty, fairness, and the common good as the basis of political
obligation. Citizens obey not because they are forced but because it is morally right and socially necessary.
3. Define “Unjust Law.” Under what circumstances can a citizen
disobey the law?
An unjust law is a law that violates moral principles, fundamental rights, or basic standards of fairness. It may
be discriminatory, oppressive, or harmful to certain individuals or groups. While an unjust law may be legally
valid, it lacks moral legitimacy because it goes against justice and human dignity. Examples include laws that
deny equality, promote racial discrimination, or restrict basic freedoms. Such laws fail to serve the common
good.
Citizens may disobey unjust laws under certain circumstances. First, when the law directly violates basic
human rights like equality, liberty, and dignity. If a law discriminates on the basis of caste, gender, race, or
religion, citizens have a moral right to resist it. Second, when legal and democratic methods fail. If courts,
legislatures, and appeals do not correct the injustice, peaceful disobedience becomes justified.
Third, disobedience must be non-violent. Thinkers like Thoreau and Gandhi emphasized that resisting unjust
laws should be peaceful to maintain moral superiority. Fourth, disobedience should be performed openly and
with willingness to accept punishment. This shows respect for the rule of law while protesting its injustice.
Fifth, the purpose must be to promote justice, not personal interest.
Thus, citizens can disobey a law when it violates morality, when peaceful remedies fail, and when their
resistance is non-violent and aimed at correcting injustice.
4. What is the Retributive Theory of Punishment? (Reference:
Kant)
The Retributive Theory of punishment is based on the idea that criminals deserve punishment for the wrongs
they commit. According to this theory, punishment exists to give offenders what they morally deserve. It is
not meant to reform them or deter others but to restore moral balance. The focus is on justice rather than
social benefit.
Immanuel Kant strongly supported the retributive theory. He argued that punishment must be based on the
principle of moral responsibility. If a person freely commits a crime, they must face the consequences. Kant
believed that using punishment only to bring about social advantages—such as reform or deterrence—is
morally wrong because it treats the offender as a means to an end. Instead, punishment should treat them as
moral agents responsible for their actions.
Kant supported proportional punishment, famously expressed through “an eye for an eye.” This does not
mean revenge, but that the severity of punishment must match the seriousness of the crime. According to
Kant, even if a society were to dissolve, it must still punish the last criminal because justice demands it.
Thus, the retributive theory centers on desert, proportionality, justice, and moral responsibility. Punishment is
necessary because it upholds the moral order of society.
5. Explain the concept of Satyagraha as a technique of resistance.
Satyagraha is a non-violent method of resistance developed by Mahatma Gandhi. The word is made from
“Satya” (truth) and “Agraha” (firmness), meaning “holding firmly to the truth.” It is based on the belief that
truth and non-violence are stronger than physical force. Gandhi believed that injustice must be resisted not
with violence but with moral courage.
Satyagraha aims to change the heart of the oppressor, not to destroy or humiliate them. It works through
persuasion, moral appeal, and self-suffering. A true Satyagrahi must be disciplined, truthful, fearless, and
committed to non-violence. They should be ready to accept suffering without retaliation.
Techniques of Satyagraha include non-cooperation, boycott, civil disobedience, fasting, peaceful protests,
marches, and voluntary suffering. The purpose is to awaken public conscience and draw attention to injustice.
Civil disobedience involves peacefully breaking unjust laws to show that they lack moral authority. Non-
cooperation means refusing to assist a wrongful government.
Satyagraha was used in India’s freedom struggle and in various social reforms. It is based on the principles of
non-injury, love, truth, and moral strength. Gandhi believed that non-violence is not a sign of weakness but
the highest form of strength.
Thus, Satyagraha is a powerful method of resistance based on truth, non-violence, and moral courage, aiming
to achieve justice through peaceful means.
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LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (15–20 Marks)
1. Why do people obey laws? Discuss the various grounds of
political obligation.
People obey laws because laws provide order, safety, and stability in society. Without laws, there would be
confusion, insecurity, and conflict. Political obligation refers to the moral duty of individuals to obey the laws
and respect the authority of the state. Various political philosophers have explained different grounds on
which political obligation is based. These grounds help us understand why citizens accept state authority and
live under its rules.
One of the main grounds is the need for social order. Human beings are social creatures who live in groups
and depend on cooperation. Laws help regulate behavior, prevent wrongdoing, and create an environment
where people can live peacefully. Individuals obey laws because they understand that order is necessary for
society to function. Disorder and lawlessness lead to violence and injustice.
Another important ground is consent. According to social contract theorists like Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau,
individuals consent—either explicitly or implicitly—to obey the laws of the state in exchange for protection
and benefits. Even if no one signs a real contract, living within a society and enjoying its benefits is considered
a form of implied consent. Consent theory suggests that political obligation arises because individuals
voluntarily accept membership in the political community.
A third ground is utility and benefit. The state provides essential public goods such as security, justice,
education, health services, and infrastructure. Citizens obey laws because they benefit from these services.
This forms part of the “fair play” principle: since everyone enjoys the benefits provided by society, everyone
must also contribute by following the laws. It would be unfair to accept benefits while refusing obligations.
Legitimacy is another ground. When a government is formed through fair and democratic procedures and
works for the people’s welfare, citizens feel morally obligated to obey. A legitimate government commands
respect because it protects individual rights and promotes justice. People obey not out of fear but out of trust
in the government’s actions.
Fear of punishment also plays a role. Laws are backed by sanctions such as fines, imprisonment, and other
penalties. Although fear is not the noblest form of obedience, it is effective in preventing crimes. However,
long-term political obligation cannot rely solely on fear; it must be supported by moral and social acceptance.
Tradition and social norms also influence obedience. Many people obey laws because they are socialized to do
so from childhood. Families, schools, religion, and culture teach respect for authority. Citizens follow laws
because they believe it is the right thing to do.
Another ground is mutual dependence. In modern societies, citizens depend on complex systems like
transport, markets, technology, and communication. These systems work only when everyone follows rules.
Obedience makes cooperation possible and strengthens trust within society.
In conclusion, people obey laws because of the need for social order, consent, benefits, legitimacy, fear of
punishment, tradition, and mutual dependence. Political obligation is essential for maintaining peace, justice,
and an organized social life.
2. Critically analyze the Theories of Political Obligation, focusing
on Social Contract Theory and Consent Theory.
Social Contract Theory and Consent Theory are two important explanations for political obligation. Both
theories argue that citizens have a duty to obey the state because they have accepted its authority. However,
each theory has strengths and weaknesses, and both have been debated by political philosophers.
The Social Contract Theory developed by thinkers like Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau states that political
obligation arises from an agreement among individuals to form a state. According to Hobbes, in the state of
nature, life is full of fear and insecurity. People make a contract to create a sovereign authority that can
protect them. The obligation to obey arises from this original agreement. Locke believed that people form
governments to protect natural rights like life, liberty, and property. If the state violates these rights, the
contract breaks, and citizens can resist. Rousseau argued that individuals give up some freedoms to the
community to achieve the common good.
The strength of the social contract theory is that it provides a clear foundation for legitimate political
authority. It highlights voluntary agreement, protection of rights, and mutual cooperation. However, the main
criticism is that no real historical contract ever took place. People are born into societies and do not
consciously agree to obey. Critics argue that the theory depends on a fictional agreement.
Consent Theory is closely related to the social contract idea. It argues that political obligation arises because
individuals give consent to the state, either explicitly or implicitly. Explicit consent includes taking an oath or
signing a document. Implicit consent occurs when individuals live in a country, use its services, and enjoy its
benefits. Thinkers like Locke believed that by enjoying the advantages of society, individuals give their silent
consent to obey its laws.
The strength of consent theory is that it respects individual freedom. It does not force obedience; instead, it
bases obligation on voluntary acceptance. However, critics argue that implicit consent is weak. Many people
have no real choice but to live where they are born. Simply using roads or public services does not mean that
individuals freely consent to authority. Another criticism is that refusing consent usually means leaving the
country, which is unrealistic for most people.
Both theories emphasize freedom, agreement, and the moral basis of political obligation. However, both
suffer from the problem that real consent is rare, and historical contracts are imaginary. Modern thinkers
believe that political obligation should be based on fairness, benefits, and moral duty rather than only on
consent.
In conclusion, Social Contract Theory and Consent Theory provide important insights into why citizens obey
the state. They highlight voluntary cooperation, protection of rights, and legitimacy. Yet, both theories face
criticism for relying on assumptions that may not reflect real social conditions. Despite limitations, these
theories continue to shape modern ideas of democracy, citizenship, and political responsibility.
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3. Discuss the Right to Resistance and Dissent. Compare
the views of T.H. Green and Mahatma Gandhi.
The Right to Resistance and Dissent is an important democratic principle. It means that citizens have the
moral and political right to oppose unjust laws, wrongful actions of the government, and unfair use of power.
Resistance and dissent help protect individual liberty and prevent the misuse of authority. They also
strengthen democracy by encouraging participation, debate, and accountability. Without the right to question
and resist, governments can easily become oppressive.
The right to dissent allows people to express disagreement through speech, writing, protests, petitions, and
peaceful demonstrations. It is a non-violent form of opposition that seeks to correct government actions by
raising awareness and persuading people. Dissent is essential for bringing reforms, exposing corruption, and
defending constitutional values. The right to resistance is stronger; it comes into play when the government
violates basic rights or becomes tyrannical. Resistance can include non-cooperation, civil disobedience, and in
extreme cases, rebellion. However, in modern democratic theory, resistance is justified only when legal
remedies have failed.
T.H. Green, a British idealist philosopher, supported the idea of active citizenship. He believed that individuals
have a moral duty to promote the common good. According to Green, political obligation exists only when the
state acts for the welfare of the people. If the state becomes unjust or fails to protect rights, citizens are not
morally bound to obey it. Green argued that the state is a means, not an end; its purpose is to create
conditions where individuals can develop their abilities. Therefore, when the state becomes a barrier to moral
development, resistance becomes justified.
Green did not promote violent rebellion. Instead, he supported constructive criticism, democratic
participation, and peaceful resistance. He believed that the state’s authority is legitimate only when it serves
justice. Dissent helps correct state actions and keeps it aligned with moral principles. Thus, for Green,
resistance is a moral right based on the idea that the state should promote human welfare.
Mahatma Gandhi also supported the right to resistance, but his approach was rooted in non-violence
(Ahimsa) and truth (Satyagraha). Gandhi believed that unjust laws have no moral authority. Citizens must
disobey them peacefully to awaken the conscience of the oppressor. Gandhi’s method of resistance focuses
on moral strength, self-sacrifice, and persuasion. He rejected violence completely, arguing that violence
destroys both the oppressor and the oppressed. Gandhi’s resistance was based on civil disobedience, non-
cooperation, boycotts, fasting, and peaceful protests.
There are similarities between Green and Gandhi. Both believed that the moral purpose of the state is
essential for political obligation. Both held that resistance is justified when the state becomes unjust. Both
supported peaceful, non-violent forms of dissent. However, their approaches differ in key ways. Green
focused more on democratic participation and the moral role of the state, while Gandhi expanded resistance
into a complete philosophy of life based on truth and non-violence. Gandhi emphasized personal purity, self-
discipline, and voluntary suffering, which were not central to Green’s ideas.
In conclusion, both T.H. Green and Mahatma Gandhi viewed resistance as a moral right rooted in justice and
the common good. Green emphasized moral citizenship and the state’s duty to promote welfare, while
Gandhi gave resistance a spiritual and non-violent foundation. Together, their views highlight the importance
of resisting injustice while respecting truth, morality, and peaceful methods.
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4. Examine the Reformative Approach to Punishment. How
does the Gandhian thought differ from the Deterrent
Theory?
The Reformative Approach to punishment is based on the idea that the purpose of punishment is to change
the criminal into a better human being. Instead of focusing on harsh penalties, this approach believes that
most criminals commit crimes due to poverty, ignorance, bad environment, or weak moral values. Therefore,
the justice system should aim to rehabilitate them so that they can return to society as responsible
individuals.
The reformative theory argues that punishment should not be cruel or destructive. Instead, it should provide
opportunities for moral education, counseling, vocational training, and emotional support. The goal is to
transform the character of the offender. Reformative punishment includes measures like probation, parole,
open jails, rehabilitation centers, counseling, community service, and educational programs. Modern
criminology supports this view by showing that harsh punishments often fail to reduce crime, while humane
methods lead to better results.
The reformative approach benefits both the individual and society. Reformed criminals become productive
citizens, reducing crime in the long run. Society gains by preventing future offenses rather than simply
punishing past ones. This approach is based on human dignity, believing that no one is beyond change. It
assumes that every individual has some goodness that can be developed with proper support.
Gandhian thought supports the reformative approach. Gandhi believed that crime is often the result of social
and moral weaknesses. Instead of hatred, society should show compassion and try to change the wrongdoer’s
mind. Gandhi emphasized the power of love, forgiveness, and moral persuasion. He believed that punishment
should aim at awakening the conscience of the criminal. According to him, violence or harshness cannot truly
reform an individual. Gandhi supported simple living, spiritual growth, moral discipline, and self-reflection as
ways to change human behavior.
On the other hand, the Deterrent Theory aims to prevent crime by instilling fear. According to this theory,
punishment exists not to reform the criminal but to discourage both the offender and society from
committing crimes. Harsh penalties such as long imprisonment, heavy fines, and even capital punishment are
used to create fear. The idea is that if punishment is strong enough, people will think twice before committing
a crime.
The difference between Gandhian thought and the deterrent theory is clear:
• The deterrent theory uses fear, while Gandhi uses moral appeal.
• Deterrent theory focuses on society’s security, while Gandhi focuses on changing the individual.
• Deterrent theory assumes people are controlled by fear, while Gandhi believes people can be guided by love
and truth.
• Deterrent theory is external and forceful, while Gandhian reform is internal and voluntary.
In conclusion, the reformative approach aligns more closely with Gandhian ideals of compassion, human
dignity, and moral transformation. It differs sharply from the deterrent theory, which relies on fear and
punishment. Gandhi believed that true justice lies in reforming, not destroying, the human soul.
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5. Analyze the issue of implicit bias in the justice delivery
system with reference to ethnic profiling (Case Study: Black
Lives Matter).
Implicit bias refers to unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that influence decision-making without individuals
being aware of it. In the justice delivery system, implicit bias can affect how police officers, judges, and juries
treat people from different ethnic or racial groups. Even when there is no intention to discriminate,
unconscious prejudices can lead to unequal treatment, unfair judgments, and injustice. This becomes
especially dangerous when justice officials hold hidden stereotypes about certain communities.
Ethnic profiling occurs when people are suspected, stopped, searched, or targeted by law enforcement based
on their race, skin color, or cultural background rather than their actual behavior. This violates the principle of
equality before law and damages public trust. When certain communities are repeatedly treated as
“suspects,” it creates fear, anger, and alienation. Ethnic profiling is often justified in the name of crime
control, but in reality, it reflects bias rather than evidence.
The Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement in the United States is a major example of how implicit bias affects
justice. The movement gained worldwide attention after repeated incidents of police violence against African
Americans. Cases like the deaths of George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, and Michael Brown highlighted systemic
racism in policing. These incidents showed how Black individuals were more likely to be stopped by police,
subjected to excessive force, and treated as threats even when unarmed.
Studies have shown that African Americans are arrested, imprisoned, and given harsher sentences at much
higher rates than white Americans. This does not reflect higher criminality but deeper bias within the system.
Police officers may unconsciously associate Black individuals with danger due to cultural stereotypes. Judges
may give stricter punishments because of unconscious assumptions about criminal behavior. Thus, implicit
bias leads to unequal justice.
The impact of implicit bias is serious. It reduces fairness, undermines trust in institutions, and violates human
rights. It creates a cycle where targeted communities become more vulnerable to policing, leading to further
tension and violence. People lose faith in the justice system and feel excluded from society.
To reduce implicit bias, training programs, community policing, body cameras, anti-bias education, and
transparent investigations are necessary. Courts must review sentencing patterns. Police departments must
adopt fair practices that rely on evidence, not stereotypes. Community involvement is crucial for building
trust.
In conclusion, implicit bias and ethnic profiling are major threats to justice. The Black Lives Matter movement
shows how unconscious prejudice can lead to systemic discrimination. Ensuring fairness requires awareness,
reform, and constant monitoring of justice institutions to protect equality and human dignity.